Biological Information

The Human Body

2009-07-22T19:57:00.000-07:00

A software prototype, developed by IBM, lets you click an area of the body and, in turn, go into the medical history to see previous diagnoses, test results, radiological tests .
"It's like Google Earth of the human body," explains researcher Andre Elisseeff, who emphasized that the Anatomic and Symbolic Mapper Engine (ASME)-Search Engine-Symbolic Anatomical and more easily make use of electronic records. Allows access to information by combining medical data with visual representation.

This same expert has argued that has not yet created a unified electronic medical record, really functional, allowing the exchange of information between health professionals and institutions. Therefore, many professionals prefer to continue with the paper records or their own systems of data file. The aim of ASME, created in the lab's research company located in Zurich, is in a single point of component parts and unstructured information, while providing an intuitive tool for ease of use.

According Elisseeff, when a patient comes to consultation because of, for example, back pain, now the doctor questions about the details of your illness that you can remember, while testing with a physical exam. The doctor may also consider documents from previous consultations, "but you may not have access to the full history of the patient and at the same time, information on similar cases."

With new technology, optional with the mouse on the back of the avatar or figure created in three dimensions. Then, for example, would click on the spine, getting all the medical records and information related to the spine of the patient (including diagnosis, laboratory results and medical images such as radiographs).
Also, if the doctor is only interested in information on a particular section of the column, you can expand this area to define the search parameters.

Data curious about the human body

2009-07-21T19:47:00.000-07:00

Many times we hear things that seem ridiculous as the truth that you will read below, check the data and if someone has something to say against any of these things or you can deny any of them with scientific data as welcome your comments and its explanation. For now I have the first data where a video can show that if
* People say "health" when you sneeze, sneezing because for the heart is stopped a millisecond.
* If you sneeze too hard.
* If you try to contain a sneeze can break a blood vessel in the head or neck and die.
* Like fingerprints, each language is unique.
* It is impossible to sneeze with your eyes open (do not try to do better, because you can not get out ... just kidding).
* The human skeleton consists of 205 or 206 bones (according to each of the coccyx). More than half of them are in the hands and feet: 27 in each hand and 26 on each foot (106 total).
* When a person reaches age 70, your heart will beat at least 2.800 million times.
* Over a lifetime, a person eats around 60,000 pounds of food, which is equivalent to the weight of 6 elephants.
* The feeling that occurs when a part of our body "sleeps" is called neurapraxia. It usually occurs when a nerve is compressed between a bone and other hard object. The blood continues flowing through the affected area.
* The nails of the fingers grow nearly four times faster than the nails of the toes.
* Women blink nearly twice that of men.
* The stomach has to produce a new layer of mucus every two weeks.
* The human skeleton is still growing up to about 35 years of age, then starts to shrink.
* We have about 100,000 hairs on our head.
* The skin on the feet and hands to be wrinkle in a long time because the water expands. The thick, hardened layers of skin to swell when water is withheld.
* The frenulum that goes under the tongue is not one to swallow and choke her.
* 70 percent of the human body is composed of water.
* The human ears grow throughout life, although they do it very slowly.
* And ... it could not miss more than 70% of people who read this will try to lick your elbow.

Create a 3D model of the human body

2009-07-20T19:29:00.000-07:00

The new tool, created at IBM Research Laboratory in Zurich, and named ASME (Anatomic and Symbolic Mapper Engine - Search Engine Anatomic and Symbolic) allows physicians to click the mouse on one body part to start a search information in the patient.Researchers from IBM today launched the prototype of a 3D visualization software that will allow doctors to interact with patient data in the same way they interact with people, ie, examining the human body.

"With this project we make it easier to access information by combining medical data with visual representation. This will make the process much simpler to interact with data for health care," said Andre Elisseeff, who leads the research health in the IBM laboratory in Zurich.

Medical history in a 'click'.
According to IBM in a statement, the new technology uses an "avatar" (a character created in three dimensions) in the form of a human body to show the clinical records. When a citizen goes to consultation at present due to, eg back pain, the doctor questioned the patient about the details of your medical history you can remember, tests and performs a physical exam. The doctor may also consider documents from previous consultations, but you may not have access to the full history of the patient and at the same time, information on similar cases.

So with technology ASME, the doctor stuck with the mouse on the back of the "avatar" and then, eg on the spine, getting all the medical records and information related to the spine of the patient (including diagnosis, laboratory results and medical images such as radiographs).
Also, if the doctor is only interested in information on a particular section of the column, you can expand this area to define the search parameters.

Nacional of Medellin in the first laboratory to measure radioactive contamination of the human body

2009-07-19T19:35:00.000-07:00

The Laboratory of Bio-analysis of the Universidad Nacional (UN) in Medellín, which has all the installed systems for assessment of internal contamination, is the first of its kind in the country. Furthermore, the patterns and protocols established by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an autonomous entity of the UN.

According to Anselmo Puerta, a teacher at the Faculty of Science, with the internal dosimetry can be determined by what route he joined the substance and how much, and you can set the dose to the exposed individual. This happens mainly with those working in nuclear medicine.

"The analysis for determining the amount of radioactive material incorporated and whether such incorporation is within range, and in this case, keep a record of the individual and the dose received during their working lives. If the amount of incorporated radioactive material exceeds the range of registration, the operator enters in the research stage to perform corrective action in this regard, "he added.

At the UN, through other projects of national character and the Directorate for Research in Medellin (Dime), procedures have been developed to determine the activity of radioactive material emitting gamma and alpha in the urine, including the evaluation of Polonium 210, which is a good indicator of incorporation of naturally occurring radioactive materials.

The internal dosimetry is a way to evaluate the dose received by the person who incorporates radioactive material and can occur through direct contact. This integration can occur through inhalation, ingestion or through the skin. According to experts, nuclear medicine is one of the applications where there is such a risk because it is handled radioactive material in liquid form and some of them are volatile as iodine 131.

Other forms of incorporation of radioactive material, such as through food, where the concentration is usually very small. However, in Colombia there have been no studies on concentrations of naturally occurring radioactive material in food.

Other possibilities of incorporating these radioactive materials can be natural in factories storage of mineral water or beer, mines, construction materials and quarries, which could contain uranium or thorium, which should be evaluated to see if there radiation risk, said Anselmo Gate.

According to Jorge Ignacio Mejía Vallejo, coordinator of Nuclear Affairs of the Ministry of Mines and Energy, for people who are exposed because of their occupation, should not exceed 20 millisievert per year, but may receive up to 50 in one year without 100 millisievert exceed a period of five years. Overcome these parameters, the substance would cause serious damage to health.

The Radiation Physics Group, School of Physics, National University of Colombia in Medellin and has international recognition in internal dosimetry. This follows from the teaching of Professor Anselmo Door in the course Assessment of occupational exposure due to intake of radionuclides', organized by the IAEA and held in the Institute of Radioprotection and Dosimetry in the city of Rio de Janeiro 2004.

Door announced that the IAEA has already approved a project proposal for evaluation of natural radioactivity in water consumption, at least in the cities of Medellin and Bogota. This project is expected to analyze water samples from distribution systems in primary and secondary.

Breast cancer

2009-07-17T19:36:00.000-07:00

Breast cancer is a cancer of the tumor has been known since ancient times. The oldest description of cancer (but without using the word 'cancer') comes from Egypt from 1600 BC or so. The Edwin Smith papyrus describes 8 cases of tumors or ulcers of cancer who were treated with cauterization with a tool called "orquilla the fire." The writing says about the disease: "There is no treatment. At least one case is a man. For centuries, physicians described similar cases, all with a sad conclusion. It was only that medical science was greater understanding of the circulatory system in the seventeenth century that progress was made happy. In this century it was possible to determine the relationship between breast cancer and axillary lymph nodes. The French surgeon Jean Louis Petit (1674 - 1750) and later the surgeon Benjamin Bell (1749 - 1806) were the first to remove the lymph nodes, breast tissue and muscles pectoral (radical mastectomy). His path to understanding and progress was followed by William Stewart Halsted who invented the operation known as the Halsted radical mastectomy "procedure that has been popular until the last years of the seventies.

Unexpected finding on Alzheimer .- (Alzheimer III)

2009-07-15T19:55:00.001-07:00

The discovery was made during an operation with an experimental technique for treating a patient with morbid obesity. The goal of treatment, called deep brain stimulation (DBS in its English acronym), to suppress the appetite of the individual.
But instead, the patient began to experience vivid memories.
The discovery, says the study published in the journal Annals of Neurology, could lead to a form of electrical stimulation to treat brain disorders such as Alzheimer's disease.
"It's a very striking finding," said a BBC Science Dr. Melchor Lemp, vice president of the Society of Neurosurgery of Chile and head of the department of Neurology and Neurosurgery Hospital, University of Chile. "Perhaps the research will now have to move towards this area," adds the expert. The study opens this discovery is now know exactly what area of the brain should be stimulated by electrodes in order to treat a disease or other brain and its possible side effects. There is still much work, but this discovery allows the relatives of affected persons to restore the dream that one day it was.

Sociedad Chilena Historia Medicine

2009-07-14T19:58:00.000-07:00

Founded in 1955 the Chilean Society of History of Medicine since its inception, has aimed to serve as the central body meeting for all those linked to the medical field and from their respective professional fields, have sought to express their interest to know the different historiographical issues arising from the development of medicine in all its varied facets.

After his legal refoundation in 2005, our Company has sought to pursue its original research work on the History of Medicine and their advocacy. These tasks are waiting to be revitalized and supplemented, whether through the implementation of the new looks that arise from the circumstances affecting the contemporary world of medicine, as well as contributions from other fields of knowledge, from the mid-twentieth century, have Health made the object of his gaze and analysis.

The invitation is extended to all who wish to add their interest and work with us.

Components of the human body

2009-07-13T19:50:00.000-07:00

The human body consists of head, trunk and extremities, the arms are the upper limbs and legs, the lower. One of the classification systems of the human body, with respect to its constituent components, is established by Wang et al. 1992:
Level atomic hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, carbon, minerals.
Molecular level: water, proteins, lipids, hydroxy-apatite.
Cellular level: intracellular, extracellular.
Anatomical level: muscle tissue, fat, bone, skin, organs and viscera.
Level Full body: body mass, body volume, body density.

The human body is organized in different hierarchical levels. Thus, it is composed of devices, these integrated systems, which in turn are composed of organs composed of tissues that are composed of cells composed of molecules.

When the human reaches adulthood, the body is composed of about one hundred trillion cells. The skin of the human body has an area of approximately 2 m and its thickness varies between 0.5 mm on the eyelids to 4 mm in the heels. The density half of the human body is about 933 kg / m³. The average height of an adult human is approximately 1.7 m.

Proportion of key chemical elements in the human body:
Hydrogen 63%
Oxygen 25%
carbon 9.5%
nitrogen 1.4%
Calcium 0.31%
Phosphorus 0.22%
Chlorine 0.03%
Potassium 0.06%

Mode AIDS vaccine. Now airway

2009-07-12T19:57:00.000-07:00

Against AIDS, which could be applied by aerosol inhalation. It is a vaccine that should be applied in the first phase of the disease, it is a preventive vaccine. These data have been published today (12 / 02/08) in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) and informs us of the positive results in monkeys (genetically closest relatives) and human in its first phase disease, the vaccine consists of the substance with the typical disease of AIDS decreased so that the body can absorb and thus generate antibodies when they are ready for the next stage AIDS attack, the body can defend itself. Scientists who have been involved in this study as Mariano Esteban, give us assurances that this vaccine will be effective.
However, why research in vaccines, not only AIDS but also diseases such as smallpox? (Which we will talk another day).

The answer is simple, if you could create a drug in the form of aereosol (to be applied by inhalation), this would be much cheaper because the health care savings is enormous, and thus an effective vaccine, could be within reach of people in need in developing countries such as those highlighted in the chart on the right.

Diabetes

2009-07-11T19:57:00.000-07:00

Diabetes is a disorder of the body's ability to produce insulin or control and, therefore, to maintain the correct levels of blood sugar. This definition covers two fields, types, diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus. In diabetes mellitus, also called diabetes mellitus, glucose affected people can file and therefore have a sweet taste and smell like honey, hence its Latin name: mellitus. It is subdivided into several types,
In the first, this caused by the destruction of some cells of the pancreas which is not insulin. (juvenile diabetes)
In the latter, what happens is that the body provides a resistance to insulin or are not well segregated (adult diabetes)
Molecular model of insulin
The third type is gestational diabetes, is developed while pregnant.
Although there is some other type of diabetes mellitus, those three are what we might classify as the most common.
Diabetes insipidus or water diabetes is a disorder associated with deficiency of the antidiuretic hormone causes the excretion of large amounts of very dilute urine, and the constant feeling of thirst. Diabetes, along with other diseases such as AIDS, asthma, cancer, polio or Ebola is one of the 10 diseases in the world that still have no cure, and like other such as AIDS, Asthma, Cancer or the flu, are common in civilized countries that invest large resources in research.

Diabetes is also an added hassle because you can not eat anything with sugar (as your body can not treat), not eating anything with sugar pasarte life means asking special meals, plus you have to get daily injections to maintain balance in the sugar blood insulin ...
That an adult can take quite well, but for a child, can not eat chocolate or cream cake on your birthday like everyone else besides having to watch all day to keep the balance and injections, as it can reach assume a small trauma. But we are faced as with Alzheimer's, so many things you just know that someone thinks he can move a small step and a gun was uproar.

Cancer, what emerges and how

2009-07-10T19:42:00.000-07:00

Cancer (or carcinoma) is a very serious disease that occurs in various tissues and at
Over time it attacks and kills millions of people around the world.
What is it?
Cancer is a disease that spreads through the cells. Unlike viral diseases, cancer is caused by the cells themselves, rather than being caused by external agents. Malignant cells spread through the body (as we should know, a cell reproduces by dividing itself into new cells that grow and continue the chain to a limited number of times), spreading evil and destroy healthy tissues the body. In addition, cancer cells prevents apoptosis (cell death Biochemical, is a programmed process in multicellular beings). Like any other appropriate cell, cancer is a disease of cellular pathology.

What strikes tissue?
The cancer attacks many different fabrics covering various organs. Some of them are operable, while others do not have a solution today, and only you can relieve pain through treatments and therapies. Some cancers are:
Colorectal Cancer
Breast cancer
Uterine cancer
Ovarian cancer
Skin Cancer
Prostate cancer
Lung Cancer
Testicular cancer
Laryngeal cancer
Gallbladder cancer
Bone Cancer
Small cell lung cancer
Stomach cancer
Pancreatic cancer
Leukemia
Brain tumor
Liver cancer
Bladder cancer
Esophagus Cancer
Tongue cancer
What causes it occur?

It is unknown at present what causes this type of malignancy, although they are most known risk factors.
How does a tumor growing?
Carcinoma grows rapidly at first due to the increase in cell division, and also uncontrollably because they do not influence left by the growth factors or other external stimuli. Recent studies (Antonio Brú) indicate that this growth can be controlled by external factors. This is because tumor growth is linear, not exponential as was thought before. This is due to the pressure put on the cells outside the tumor as it grows, preventing its rapid expansion, only the cancerous cells can grow outside.

Fluido Delisnell - Cocoa Flavor - Medical

2009-07-07T20:14:00.000-07:00

Delisnell The pleasure of feeling fit. Emphasizes the pleasant taste of real cocoa.
Concentrated fluid that burns and tones. In Theobroma cacao, CLA, Green Tea, Fucus and Orthosiphon. Delisnel! Fluid concentrate is ideal for those who want to feel fit, without sacrificing the taste of chocolate. Their innovative design connects the pleasant taste of the Theobroma cacao many functional substances such as: • Green tea and Fucus, with antioxidant properties; • CLA (conjugago linoleic acid), with toning properties; • Orthosiphon plant well known for its cleansing action of the body; • Vitamin E with antioxidant properties. Delisnell Fluid Concentrate is therefore useful as an adjunct to the hypocaloric diet aimed at weight reduction. The intense taste of cocoa is linked to the delicate flavor of vanilla for a particularly pleasant taste.
Ingredients: Water extract of apple juice: Cocoa powder 3.5% fat, cocoa seed dry extract: conjugated linoleic acid *: Chocolate flavor 0.7% Orthosiphon leaves dry lyophilized, dried green tea leaf extract lyophilized, skim milk powder; Preservative: potassium sorbate; Fucus stem dry lyophilized, Thickener: Xanthan gum: acidifier: citric acid; Vanilla flavor 0.1% Vitamin E acetate, Sweetener: Acesulfame K. "Contains traces of soy lecithin.
How to use: it is advisable to ingest 20 ml of the product alone or diluted in half a glass of skim milk, preferably in the morning. Once opened, keep the product in the refrigerator and consume within 30 days. Warnings: Do not exceed recommended dosage. Keep product away from children under three years old.
Presentation: 200 ml pack.

Doctors suggest researching diseases in family tree

2009-07-06T19:57:00.000-07:00

Medical genomics, nutrigenomics, personalized medicine ... all these concepts relate to treat patients more personal and, as the genetic doctor Julio Rafael Cabrera, will be in Guatemala (as are already in many countries around the world) common terms in medicine a not so distant future.

"We are in an era of post-mapping," says Cabrera, referring to work done by the project involving scientists from around the world, Human Genome, launched in 1990 and had as its goal to create a map of the 23 chromosomes needed to create a human being.
"So this is an amazing time in human history," says Matt Ridley, author of the book "Genome. The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters' (Genoma. The autobiography of a species in 23 chapters). "It's the first time since that there is life on earth that a species can read your own 'recipe'."

The genes contained in chromosomes determine the kind of lives they lead a person. That's why doctors recommend genetic individuals researching your family tree that includes disease occurring in relatives of at least three generations. This allows the doctor to handle a tool to prevent diseases like diabetes, cancer, AIDS, and many others whose genes are inherited. This does not mean that the person will develop the disease during their lifetime, but that under appropriate circumstances, is likely to suffer. Cabrera described the advances in genetic medicine at a forum organized by the insurance agency Rottmann.

The tree of medicine

2009-07-05T20:02:00.000-07:00

It's always hard to say goodbye. But that is has completed the course and we must dismiss the blog that has provided the basis for our work. Maybe not over the result to be expected, or perhaps has been more than I expected. First of all, I must say that since then, I would have liked to do more but could not be for several reasons: they are personal, as in the work aspect, or other natures that are now not the case.

"The tree of medicine" has lasted exactly 6 months since its first entry, back in the distant days of November 22, when the project began. The embryo grew and developed over a long time to break into a man whose life has been exhausted. You are just a few minutes of life before giving the go-ahead trepanar and his life as if it were euthanasia.
Initially, I was going to be called "The tree of knowledge", in honor of the eponymous novel by Pío Baroja, and would discuss the various aspects and fields of knowledge and scientific practice. But he decided to specialize, becoming what we see now.

Perhaps a result of your liking, maybe not. Many things were in the dark, and it may be lost between mental rolls of parchment, like thousands of other things that do not value, but gradually disappear. Whatever, the case is that part of the effort is forgotten and lost among memories repressed thoughts. Although, as they say, the intention is what counts.

"The tree of medicine" came from two students hand in their final year of secondary education, the subject of Science, Technology and Society. Now, both are fired, if continued applauding the course of that work, and inviting them to start even if they did not.
As already announced under the title, this is goodbye. Hasta siempre.
By the way, if you enjoy the music still remains, and if not, look for a new song. Reach the merits here.

Sensory organs

2009-07-04T19:56:00.000-07:00

Tegumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails and glands that cover the body. It also includes the eyes, ears, nose and mouth. They are part of the sensory system of the body. The world is seen through a series of coded messages (electrical impulses) that are sent to the brain through the sensory Bodies. Our perception is mainly developed by the sample of sounds entering the ear and the sample of light received by the eyes. However, the sense of touch, taste and smell are also important for the perception of the world around us.

Ear: The ear is divided into three parts: the outer ear, middle and inside. Each section has its own functions within a process that converts the waves of sound into nerve impulses, which are then transmitted to the brain. The outer ear consists of two parts: the flag and the external auditory canal. This part of the ear collects sound and channels. The middle ear or tympanic cavity is a small cavity formed in the temporal bone and is an intermediary in the processing of acoustic energy. He is responsible for increasing the intensity of the waves of sound that come and turn them into mechanical vibrations that can travel easily through the inner ear. Has two parts: a bone and its associated membrane. Both have a complicated form, thus called the labyrinth. Each maze has three parts: the vestibule, the semicircular canal and the cochlea. The inner ear contains the receptor cells, which receive mechanical vibrations and send them to the brain.
Note: The globe of the eye inside the orbital cavity (basin bone) of the skull, and a side centered at the top. Of all the senses, sight is often considered the most important. It is estimated that 80% of the information reaches the brain that we perceive through our eyes. This constant flow of transmitting images to the brain by electrical signals and receive information from the rays of light. These rays can be absorbed or reflected. Objects that absorb all parts of the solar spectrum appear black, while those that reflect all the light seem white. Objects with colors absorb certain parts of the solar spectrum and reflect others. When we look at something, the light rays are reflected in the object reaching the eye. The light is refracted by the cornea and passes through the vitreous humor and the pupil to the lens. The iris controls the amount of light reaching the eye. Then, the lens focuses the light through the vitreous to the retina, forming an image inverted and down. The light-sensitive cells in the retina transmit the image to the brain via electrical signals.

Nails: The nails are simply another form of skin. Are formed by a protein called keratin that has a high sulfur content. Contrary to popular belief, the amount of calcium is quite low.
The nails are an indicator of disease. The change of sharp texture, color or growth may be an indication that it is necessary to receive medical advice. Although always a specialist examine the nails, it is impossible to diagnose a disease without considering other factors.

Breasts: The breasts (or breasts) are hemispherical glands that are on the pectoral muscles, mainly on the pectoralis major, in an area between the third and sixth rib on each side of the chest. It was found both in men as in women, although in the first form is poorly developed. In women, the development of the breasts is often the first sign of puberty. This development usually occurs around age 11, although it can also be from 9 to 13 years.

Nose: The nose is the most basic and primitive sense. It is about 10,000 times more sensitive than the sense of taste. In fact, most of the flavors of the food does not taste and smell, as corroborated any person who has a cold.

Nasal congestion prevents small drafts produced chewing and swallowing, to reach the receptors on the roof of the nasal cavity. The olfactory receptors of humans can distinguish thousands of types of smells. Some people smell better than others. The nose also plays an important role to condition the inspired air to the lower respiratory tract. The design includes the control of temperature and moisture and the removal of dust and infectious organisms.

Hair and Skin: The skin is the largest surface area in the human body and is the heaviest. On the surface there are the sensory endings in the inner organs that have a certain special functions, sweat glands, hair follicles and sebaceous glands. The skin protects the body's internal organs from infection, injury and harmful sun rays. It also has a role in regulating the temperature of the body. Although the skin of an adult could weigh about nine kilograms, in some places is as thin as paper.
Language: The language tends to be flat and moderately extensible. It consists of a network of striated muscle fibers, fibrous tissue, adipose and lymphoid masses, salivary glands and mucous membrane protection. Muscle is a highly mobile allowing taste food, move it from side to side chewing, pushing up the pharynx (throat) when swallowing and a body is essential to be able to talk. Derives mainly from the base of the pharynx (or tubers). This tuber grows forward and joined with other tissues in the area, forming the complex functions of multiple muscular body.

Nervous system

2009-07-03T20:10:00.001-07:00

The nervous system of the human body is responsible for sending, receiving and processing the nerve impulses. The functioning of all muscles and organs of the body depends on these impulses. Three systems work together to carry out the mission of the system nervous: the central, peripheral and autonomous. The central nervous system is responsible for issuing nerve impulses and analyzing the data sense, and includes the brain and spinal cord. The nervous system is peripheral mission to carry nerve impulses to and from the many structures of the body, and includes many nerves craneoespinales which bifurcate from the brain and spinal cord. The system consists of autonomic nervous the systems parasympathetic and sympathetic, and is responsible for regulating and coordinating the functions of the vital parts of the body.
Of all these, the brain is the largest in the nervous system. The brain is located in the cavity of the skull. Without its protective outer membrane, the dura, the brain weighs about 1.4 kilograms, accounting for 97% of all central nervous system. The brain is connected to the upper end of the spinal cord (which is connected to the skull through the foramen magnum or larger hole) and is responsible for issuing nerve impulses, process the data of these impulses and by the processes of mental higher order. The brain can be divided into three parts: brain, cerebellum and brain stem, which joins the spinal cord. The brain stem can also be divided into medulla oblongata or medulla oblongata, midbrain and bulge.
Brachial plexus: The term "plexus" refers to a large network of nerves and blood vessels. The nervous system has several of these networks, which together the voluntary and autonomous nerve fibers. These networks include the brachial plexus (shoulder), the plexus cervical (neck), the plexus coccygeal (coccyx) and the sacral plexus or lumbosacral (lower back).
Cerebellum: The cerebellum is the second smallest division of the brain and is located below the brain and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is a central part, called the vermis, and two sides, or hemispheres. The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating the activity and change orders resulting from impulses sent from the brain. Get information from nerve endings that are distributed throughout the body, as the center of balance in the ear of, and adjusts these actions send regulatory signals to motor neurons of the brain and spinal cord. If the cerebellum is damaged, the individual loses the power to accurately coordinate the muscles and other additional actions of the processes driving (ataxia).
Brain: The brain is the most voluminous of the brain. This consists of a large mass of nerve fibers in white and gray top. He is responsible for some of the higher order mental processes (memory, judging, reasoning), to process the sensory data and process initial driving, such as voluntary muscle flexion. The brain has two sides or hemispheres, which have a large number of folds and furrows connected in the middle of the marrow. The brain is divided into four sections, or lobes, whose names depend on the skull bone is closer to the frontal lobe, the occipital, the parietal and temporal. The cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain and these lobes are submitted through the lateral ventricles that send branches, or horns, the occipital lobe, frontal and temporal. The functions of each lobe are coordinated by connective fibers. The longer and denser these fibers form the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres and reaches the surface (cerebral cortex) by branching. The other two are called connective fibers commissure above, which contains olfactory fibers and other temporary connections, and hippocampal commissure, which lies across the back below the corpus callosum and is particularly related to the olfactory centers of the brain. The human brain, which contains about one trillion neurons, the mechanism is more complex than is known and still admire its many functions and focusing many investigations.
Common nerve: The nerve nerves include common, superficial and deep. These nerves originate in the sciatic nerves, which branch from the spinal cord between the fourth lumbar vertebra and the third sacral vertebrae, and extend to the calf muscles and even the skin of the feet and fingers.
Cranial Nerves: The twelve cranial nerves innervate muscles and skin of the head and neck, such as the vagus and spinal nerves, other parts of the body. These nerves arise in bulges in the prosencéfalo in the medulla oblongata or the medulla oblongata and upper spinal cord, between the first cervical vertebrae. The first four include the olfactory (1 ), which InverVida the nasal mucosa and facilitate the taste, the optical (2 ), which innervates the retina and provides the hearing, the common oculomotor (3 ), which innervates the pupil and cilia of the eye and troclear (4 ), which innervates the superior oblique muscles of the eye. The following is the cranial trigeminal nerve (5 ), which has three parts: ophthalmic (eye), the maxillary (upper palate and face) and the mandibular (jaw, tongue and region auriculotemporal). The three nerves are the motor external eye (which innervates the lateral rectus of the eye), the facial (facial muscles and the ear) and auditory (external and internal ear), the ninth cranial nerve is the glosofaríngeo, which innervates the pharynx, tongue and ear drum. The tenth cranial nerve, the vagus has several branches that innervate a large number of organs including heart, lungs and stomach. The following nerve (11 ) is called the spinal accessory nerve and innervates the neck and throat, including the pharynx and cervical lymph glands. The final cranial nerve (12 ) is the halibut, which innervates the tongue.
Deep nerve: The nerve nerves include common, superficial and deep. These nerves originate in the sciatic nerves, which branch from the spinal cord between the fourth lumbar vertebra and the third sacral vertebrae, and extend to the calf muscles and even the skin of the feet and fingers.
Femoral nerve: femoral nerves branching from the spinal cord between the second and fourth lumbar vertebra. Extends down the leg to innervate the muscles and skin of that area, including the thigh, knee, part of the calf, ankle and foot.
Iliohypogastric nerve: The iliohypogastric nerve from the spinal cord up to the first lumbar vertebra. Extends to the skin that covers the pubis and the part of the gluteal region at the waist.

Cardiovascular system

2009-06-28T20:22:00.001-07:00

To keep the body alive, each of its cells must receive a continuous supply of
food and oxygen. At the same time, becollected dioxide, carbon and other materials produced by these cells to removethe body. This process is done continuously circulatory system. The circulatorysystem is composed of the main heart and blood vessels, which together maintain
the flow of blood throughout the body continual transporting oxygen and
nutrients and removing dioxide carbon and products of the waste tissues
peripherals. A subsystem of the circulatory system, lymphatic system,
interstitial fluid collects and returns it to the blood. The heart pumps
oxygenated blood from the lungs to all parts of the body through a network of
branches and smaller arteries called arterioles. The blood returns to the heart
through small veins that empty into larger veins. Arterioles and venules are
joined by even smaller vessels called metarteriolas. Capillaries, blood vessels,
the thickness of a cell, branching from metarteriolas and then turn to join
them. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood takes place in this
network of fine capillaries. An average adult has about 96,540 km of blood
vessels in your body.
Artery Angle: The angular artery begins at the end of the facial artery. Amounts
to the eyes, providing blood supply to the tear duct and eyelid orbicular
muscles. The angular artery also has ramifications on the cheek Anterior tibia
artery: the anterior and posterior tibial arteries branching from the popliteal
artery and supply blood to the legs and feet. The posterior tibia artery is a
large artery that runs through the legs to the feet, and there are branches in
the internal and external plantar artery (artery of the foot). Internal tibia
artery becomes the dorsal artery of the foot in the ankle joint.

Aorta: The largest blood vessel of the body is the aorta, leaving the heart and
descends to the lower body. Has a diameter of about one inch and a half and the
blood goes through it at a speed of about twenty centimeters per second. The
aorta is divided into several parts: the ascending aorta, the aortic arch and
thoracic and abdominal parts of the descending aorta. Arch of the aorta: The
largest blood vessel of the body is the aorta, leaving the heart and descends to
the lower body. Has a diameter of about one inch and a half and the blood goes
through it at a speed of about twenty centimeters per second. The aorta is
divided into several parts: the ascending aorta, the aortic arch and thoracic
and abdominal parts of the descending aorta.
Artery arch: arched arteries are small branches of curved arteries that supply
blood to the brain renewed. The blood supply to the brain is constant, about 250
millimeters per second. The brain is more sensitive to oxygen than any other
organ of the body. Brain cells suffer permanent damage if you stop the blood
supply for more than two minutes. For this reason, the body has developed a
system of security, called the self, through which nerve impulses number to
maintain the level of blood flow to the brain even if the flow drops drastically
in the rest of the body, such as a heavy bleeding. Axillary artery: On the side
of the first rib, subclavian artery becomes the axillary artery (axillary
artery) which continues to decrease until the lower edge of the muscle and
becomes more round in the brachial artery. The artery is divided into three
branches around the pectoralis minor muscle, the muscle on one another behind
the muscle and the other below the muscle. The artery supplies oxygenated blood
to the arm and upper chest area.

Brachial artery The brachial artery supplies oxygenated blood to the arms. Start
at the bottom of the circular muscle increased and extends to just below the
shoulder joint. Then branches into radial and ulnar arteries. You can feel the
pulse by placing the fingertips along the brachial artery in the shoulder of the
curve along the inside margin of the biceps muscle. Capillaries: About ten
billion capillaries intertwine all tissues of the body, supplying blood to all
cells. Blood vessels are smaller, microscopic in size and contain less than five
percent of the volume of blood circulating. Capillaries branching from
metarteriolas connecting arterioles with venules. The capillary walls are thin,
the thickness of a cell, and there is exchange of metabolic and oxygen. When
blood flows through capillaries in the lungs, changes in venous blood to
arterial blood carbon dioxide unloading and picking up oxygen. Its color changes
in the process of dark crimson to bright scarlet. When blood flows through
tissue capillaries, switches from venous to arterial blood. The oxygen leaves
the blood to enter cells, and carbon dioxide leaves the cells and enters the
blood.

Muscular system.

2009-06-26T20:16:00.000-07:00

The human body contains more than 650 individual muscles attached to the
skeleton, providing the impetus for movement. These muscles constitute about 40% of the
total weight of the body. The point of attachment of muscle to bone or other
muscles called the origin or insertion. The origin point is the junction where
the muscle is fixed to the bone. The insertion point is the junction with the
bone to the muscle that moves. Usually, the muscles are connected by resilient
structures called fibrous tendons. These joints connect one or more joints, and
the result of muscle contraction is the movement of the joints. The body is
moved mainly by groups muscle, not individual muscles. These groups of muscles
behind all sorts of actions, from threading a needle to lift heavy objects.

Long abductor of the thumb: combined with the short extensor of the thumb, long
abductor of the thumb creates a narrow, triangular muscle that surrounds the
lower end of the radius (forearm bone on the side of the thumb). The long thumb
abductor was born on the back side of the radius and ulna and is inserted at the
base of the metacarpal bone of the thumb near the palm. This muscle extends the
thumb away from the hand (ie, performs an abduction). It also rotates and flexes
the hand at the height of the wrist. The combination of the long thumb abductor
and short extensor of the thumb formed group of oblique muscles of the hand,
which produces a small but significant convexity in the third quarter along the
lower profile (radial) of the forearm.

Adductor long: There are three adductor muscles in the legs, the long adductor,
the adductor and short adductor greater. The three worked with the adductor
muscles pentene to move the thigh inward. They are powerful muscles that rotate
the thigh outwards and move it to the opposite side, as the movement performed
by crossing the legs. The adductor muscle is a long long triangular, which has
its origin in both fiber and a tough fleshy tendon in a small area of the front
hollow of the pelvis and pubic is inserted into the femur (upper leg bone). The
adductor is located behind the short adductor long. The adductor muscle is a
more triangular form a dividing wall between the muscles of the inner thigh and
the rear. Located inside the thigh. This long muscle arises from a narrow point
on the pelvis, passes between the muscle mass of the hollow of the knee tendon
and quadriceps and ends at its widest appendix at the back of the femur. It is a
powerful muscle that performs the adduction of the thigh. The small upper
portion of the adductor adductor couple called minor.

Biceps brachia: The biceps brachia (muscle of the arm with two portions) is
formed by the long portion and the portion short. It extends from the shoulder
to the elbow and is the main flexor of the elbow joint. Working together with
other adjacent muscles may also move the shoulder, since its upper ends are
attached to the scapula (shoulder blade). Additionally, you can rotate the lower
arm so palm is facing up, a movement called supination. At its lower end, the
biceps tendon is a strong level that is strong and firmly fixed to a protrusion
of the upper end of the radio. The biceps and triceps work together to control
the movement up and down the forearm.

Supinator: The spinster originates or two thirds of the length of the humorous
(the bone of the upper arm) and the triceps brachia. The muscle begins wide and
flat and still rotates toward the front of the arm down. At that point it
becomes wide and flat to make before ending in a flat tendon which is inserted
in the radio by the side of the thumb. Unlike most of the long tendons of the
forearm, the tendon does not cross the wrist, but it ends at the distal end of
the radio. This muscle bends the arm by the elbow, but is not involved in the
movement of rotation of the forearm.

Deltoid: The deltoid muscle is a powerful, big and thick. Has a triangular shape
and a coarse texture. At its widest point beginning at the clavicle and the
spine of the scapula (shoulder blade), covering the outer part of the shoulder
joint, giving the shoulder its rounded appearance, and is inserted into the
humerus (bone of the upper arm). This muscle moves the humerus and is used to
lift the arm out from the side. Works with the pectoralis major to move the arm
forward and round with the highest and dorsal width to move the arm backwards.

External oblique: the external oblique muscle is a large, thin sheet covering
the side of the torso and the front part. This muscle is divided into two
portions, an upper chest portion and a lower lateral portion. The thoracic
portion is located along the rib cage. When the muscle is relaxed individual
ribs can be seen below. The lower lateral portion is located along the side of
the abdomen between the rib cage and pelvis. The bulk of this muscle is hidden
by a layer of fat. The two portions are joined at the waist. This muscle is used
to bend the body forward and turn from side to side.

Twins: The Twins muscles are connected to two joints, knee and ankle. They
consist of a twin external, one internal and one tendon insertion. Each is a
thick muscular column, separated from the back of the knee. Descending join. The
internal twin is larger and surrounds the leg towards the front with the twin
external. Both end up in the middle of the leg or slightly above where it joins
the tendon. The twins are the fusiform bulge of the calf of the leg. The tendon
descends and fuses with the tendon of the soleus, which lies just below, forming
the Achilles tendon, which inserts into the heel bone. The twins are pushing the
body muscles during walking, running or jumping. Raise the heel, which lifts the
body. It also contributes, albeit slightly, to flex the knee joint.

Occipitofrontal: The occipitofrontal is a large muscle-fibrous layer covering
the epicráneo (the top of the skull). It is formed by two thin muscle layers.
The occipital portion, sometimes called the occipital muscle, is quadrilateral
shape and about four inches long, and covers the back of the skull. The front
portion also has quadrilateral shape. Is wider and its fibers are longer. It
covers the forehead. The frontal and occipital portions of the muscle are joined
by a thin, flat tendon called aponeurosis Epicraneals. The fascia is placed on
the muscle covering the top of the skull. Join occipitofrontal muscle to move
the scalp. The frontal muscle elevates the eyebrows and scalp moves forward. The
muscle moves the occipital scalp backwards.

The skeleton

2009-06-24T20:19:00.000-07:00

The skeleton is the frame of anatomy
human body that supports and protects their internal organs. The skeleton
consists of 206 bones, half of whom are in the hands and feet. Most of the bones
are connected to other bones at joints flexible high mobility and flexibility of
the human body. There is only one bone, the hiodes, which is not directly
connected to another bone through a joint. This fixes the bone tongue and is
attached to the styloid apophysis of the skull through a ligament. The skeletons
of men and women are basically equal, with the only major exception that the
female bones are usually lighter and thinner and that the pelvis is wider and
deeper than the man. The latter difference makes childbirth.
Carpal: Carpal Bones (or wrist) are the eight individual bones that make up the
wrist. They are small bones that fit exactly to each other to allow the enormous
flexibility of the wrist and keep your structure Íntegra. These eight bones are:
ganchoso, scaphoid, trapezium, pisiforme, trapezoid, semilunar, pyramidal and
large bone. They articulate with the metacarpal, the radius and ulna.

Cervical vertebrae: The cervical vertebrae are the first seven vertebrae (top)
of the spine. The first cervical vertebra is the atlas, and its name is that
directly support the weight of the skull. The second cervical vertebra is called
the axis, since it admits the rotation of the skull, allowing the turn on this
atlas. The other five vertebrae have no names, but are named by their number (ie,
third cervical vertebra). Each of the cervical spine has a body (anterior, or
front) and an arc (rear or back). The body of each vertebra of the spine bears
the weight placed on the vertebrae (and skull), while the arch serves to create
an area similar to a canal along the spine to house and protect the spinal cord.
Each cervical vertebra has a hole (aperture) in each of its transverse apophyses
(protruding side). The arch of the vertebra features a small protrusion or
projection, called the tuber before. Tubers above the sixth cervical vertebra
are particularly large and are known as carotid tubers.

Collarbone: The clavicle is a long, slightly curved bone that forms the front
(anterior) of each pectoral arch. It lies just above the first rib on each side
of the rib cage and is attached to the sternum in the chest and one side of the
acromion of the scapula (forming the acromio clavicular joint).

Coccyx: The coccyx is composed of three to five elementary vertebrae. Normally,
the first of the vertebrae of the coccyx is separated, while the rest are all
together. The articulation between the vertebrae and the sacrum allow some
flexibility in the coccyx, which is beneficial to cushion falls and sit. The
coccyx is extremely susceptible to fractures of shock, which may be due to a
fall. Furthermore, since certain nerve conduits pass near this area, the damage
to the coccyx often result in damage to the nerves of the lower body. The
joining of the first sacral vertebrae with the case in the lower side of the
sacrum.

Femur: The femur is the longest bone in the body and forms the upper leg or
thigh. Hinges on its head with the acetabulum of the pelvis, the tibia, the
fibula and the patella to form the knee joint at the bottom. Each femur holds
the weight of the upper body. Fibula: The fibula is the smaller bone of the
lower leg. Each end is articulated with the tibia (which is parallel), in his
head (upper) with the femur at the knee joint and at the bottom with the bones
of the ankle or tarsus. The fibula is like a strengthening of the lower leg.
Humerus The humerus is a long bone that forms the upper arm. His head (upper) is
articulated with the scapula (glenoid cavity in) while the distal end
articulates with the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) to form the elbow
joint.

Ilion: Ilion is one of the three pelvic bones that form the pelvic waist. It is
a bone that is wide and flared top and side sections of the pelvis. The Ilion is
known for its wings that extend on either side of the spine, looking for a
airplane propeller when viewed sideways.

Viruses as biological contaminants

2009-06-22T20:14:00.000-07:00

Viruses are extremely simple ways of life and its size is very small, measuring millionths of a millimeter.
They have no ability to grow and multiply out of a cell alive.
They are, therefore, cellular parasites required. Among them, mention may be the causative agents of hepatitis, the herpes and AIDS.

Viruses vs. Biological Virus

2009-06-22T20:10:00.000-07:00

A comparative analysis of similarities and differences between the two "species" shows that the similarities between the two are nothing short of amazing. To notarlas foremost we must know exactly what is a computer virus and is a biological virus.

Virus Information (VI)

Short program, invisible to the user (not detectable by the operating system) and specific and surreptitious act, which includes sufficient information and code needed for using the mechanisms for implementing other programs offered through the microprocessor, can be reproduced as replicas of themselves (complete, in discrete form in a file, computer disk or other than that occupied), which may mutate, resulting from this process modification, alteration and / or destruction of programs, information and / or hardware concerned (in logic). (1)

"A virus responds to the DAS model: Anina D, A and utorreplicante S ubrepticio." (2)

Biological virus (BV)
Fragments of DNA or RNA covered with a coat protein. They reproduce only inside living cells, which take control of their enzymes and metabolism. Without this are as inert as any other macromolecule. (1)

Some analogies between the two are
The VB comprise nucleic acids that contain information (malicious program or VI) sufficient and necessary for using the acids from the host cell (infected program by VI) can reproduce themselves.
The VB do not have own metabolism, so do not show activity outside the host. This also happens in the VI, for example, if the machine is switched off or if the virus is found on a floppy disk that is inside a drawer.
The size of a VB is relatively small compared to the infected cells. VI with the same behavior. Both the VB VI cause damage on the host.
Both viruses begin their activity in a hidden form and without the knowledge of his guest, and usually become evident after the damage is already too high to overcome.
The purpose of a VB (as science) is the reproduction and eventual destruction of the host as a result. Of the VI can be many reasons for its creation (by the author), but also end up destroying or modifying in any manner to his guest.
Both viruses contain the information necessary for replication and eventual destruction. The difference lies in how to contain this information in the genetic code is a VB and VI is in binary code.
Supporting information is also shared by both bodies. " In the VB support is provided DNA or RNA (organic medium). VI in the medium is a magnetic medium (inorganic).
Both types of viruses are propagated in various ways (and rarely all). In the case of VB is its means of spreading the air, water, direct contact, etc.. The VI can be spread by introducing an infected floppy disk into a computer sound (and run the infected area, is of course!), Or vice versa: RAM disk to a healthy infected or directly drawing a flow of electrons: modem, network, etc.
In both cases it happens that reproduction is a replica of the original and whose accuracy depends on the existence of mutations or not.
Both entities comply with the standard of medical epidemiology.
The origin of an entity generally is unknown, but what you know with certainty is that the VI is produced by humans and VB that are entities of biological origin and ultimately of human origin (biological).

Are undoubtedly many more analogies that can be found doing a more thorough analysis of both entities, but beyond the scope of this report. The idea is just to make it clear that there is no strange, dark or supernatural reason to give an explanation VI. It is simply a program more than any of us would be able to conceive ... with the appropriate tools and intentions of the case.

Structures intracellular

2009-06-21T20:26:00.000-07:00

The cytoplasmic membrane has a bacterial structure similar to that of plants and animals. It is a lipid bilayer composed primarily of phospholipids which are inserted into the molecules of proteins. In bacteria makes many functions including those of osmotic barrier, transport, biosynthesis, transduction of energy, the center of DNA replication and anchorage point for the flagella. Unlike the eukaryotic membranes, generally does not contain sterols (exceptions are mycoplasmas and some proteobacteria), but may contain similar components called hopanoides.

Many important reactions biochemistry that occur in cells produced by the existence of concentration gradients across a membrane. This gradient creates a potential difference analogous to that of an electric battery and allows the cell, for example, electron transport and procurement of energy. The absence of internal membranes in bacteria means these reactions have to occur through the cytoplasmic membrane itself, between the cytoplasm and periplasmic space.

Because bacteria are prokaryotes lack organelles delimited cytoplasmic membrane and thus have few intracellular structures. Have no cell nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and other organelles in eukaryotic cells, such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum. As an exception, some bacteria contain intracellular structures surrounded by membranes which may be regarded as primitive organelles. Examples are the tilacoides of cyanobacteria, the compartments containing ammonia monooxygenase in Nitrosomonadaceae and various structures in Planctomycetes.

Like all living organisms, bacteria contain ribosomes for protein synthesis, but they are different from those of eukaryotes and archaea. The structure of the ribosomes of bacteria and archaea is similar, since both are 70 types of S while eukaryotic ribosomes that are either 80 S. However, most proteins ribosomiales factors of translation and tRNA arqueanos are more similar to eukaryotes than to bacteria.

Many bacteria have vacuoles, granules for intracellular storage of substances such as glycogen, polyphosphates, Sulfur or polyhydroxyalkanoates. Some bacterial species photosynthetic, such as cyanobacteria, produce internal vesicles gas they use to regulate their buoyancy and depth to achieve optimum light intensity and / or optimal levels of nutrients. Other structures present in some species are carboxisomas (which contain enzymes for carbon fixation) and magnetosomes (for the magnetic orientation).

Elements of the cytoskeleton of Caulobacter crescentus. In the figure, these elements are related to their prokaryotic counterparts and eukaryoti
Bacteria do not have a nucleus bounded by membranes. The genetic material is organized into a single chromosome in the cytoplasm, within a body called irregular nucleoide. Most bacterial chromosomes are circular, although there are some examples of linear chromosomes, for example, Borrelia burgdorferi. The chromosome contains nucleoide together with associated proteins and RNA. The order Planctomycetes are an exception because a membrane surrounding their nucleoide and has several cellular structures bounded by membranes.

Structure of the bacterial cell

2009-06-21T20:25:00.001-07:00

Bacteria are relatively simple organisms. Its dimensions are very small, about 2 m wide and 7-8 m in length in the cylindrical shape (bacillus) of medium size, although very common species of 0.5-1.5 micrometers.

They lack a nucleus bounded by a membrane but have a nucleoide, a basic structure that contains a large circular molecule of DNA. The cytoplasm lacks organelles delimited by membranes and the formation protoplasmáticas own eukaryotic cells. In the cytoplasm can be seen plasmids, small circular DNA molecules that coexist with nucleoide contain genes and are commonly used by bacteria in the conjugation. The cytoplasm contains vacuoles (granules that contain substances of reserve) and ribosomes (used in the synthesis of proteins).

A cytoplasmic membrane composed of lipids surrounding the cytoplasm and, like plant cells, most have a cell wall, which in this case is composed of peptidoglycan (murein). Some bacteria also have a second lipid membrane (outer membrane) surrounding the cell wall. The space between the cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall (outer membrane or if it exists) is called the periplasmic space. Some bacteria have a capsule and are able to evolve into endospores, dormant stages capable of withstanding extreme conditions. Among the external characteristic of the bacterial cell include flagella and pili.

Bacterial Morphology

2009-06-20T20:36:00.000-07:00

Bacteria have a wide variety of sizes and shapes. Most have a size ten times smaller than that of eukaryotic cells, ie between 0.5 and 5 m. However, some species such as Thiomargarita namibiensis and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reach 0.5 mm, which makes them visible to the naked eye. At the other extreme are smallest known bacteria, which include those belonging the genus Mycoplasma, which measure only reach 0.3 m, ie as small as viruses bigger.

The form of the bacteria is very varied and often takes a very different morphological species, known as pleomorphism. However, there are three basic types of bacteria:
Coco (from Greek Kokkas, grain) from spherical shape.
Diplococci: cocci in groups of two.
Tetracoco: cocci in groups of four.
Streptococus: cocci in chains.
Staphylococcus: cocci in irregular clusters or bunches.
Bacillus (from Latin baculus, rod) in the form of a swab.
Helical forms:
Vibrio: slightly curved and comma-shaped, bean or peanut.
Espirilo: rigid helical form or in a corkscrew.
Spirochete: corkscrew-shaped (helical flexible).

Some species even have tetrahedral or cubic forms. This wide variety of forms is ultimately determined by the composition of the cell wall and the cytoskeleton is of vital importance, as it may influence the ability of bacteria to acquire nutrients, joining surfaces or in the presence of moving stimuli.

The following are different species with different patterns of association:
Neisseria gonorrhoeae in diploid (in pairs).
Streptococcus in the form of strings.
Staphylococcus shaped clusters.
Actinobacteria in the form of filaments. These filaments often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells can branch out to reach, such as gender Nocardia, thus acquiring the appearance of the mycelium of a fungus.

Range of sizes that provide cell prokaryotes relative to other organisms and biomolecules.

Bacteria have the ability to anchor to certain areas and forming a cell aggregate in a layer known as biofilm or biofilm, which may have a thickness ranging from a few micrometers up to half a meter. These biofilms can assemble various bacterial species, as well as protists and archaea, and are characterized by forming a cluster of cells and extracellular components, thus achieving a higher level of organization or secondary structure called microcolonies, through which there are many channels facilitate the diffusion of nutrients. In natural environments such as soil or plant surfaces, most bacteria are anchored to the surface in the form of biofilms. These biofilms should be taken into account in chronic bacterial infections in medical implants, as the bacteria that form these structures are much more difficult to eradicate the bacteria that individual.

Finally, include a kind of even more complex morphology, observable in some of the group of microorganisms mixobacterias. When these bacteria are found in half in low amino acids are able to detect the cells around, in a process known as quorum sensing, in which all other cells migrate and aggregate, giving rise to fruiting bodies that can reach 0.5 mm in length and contain about 100,000 cells. Once formed this structure bacteria are able to perform different functions, ie they differ, thus reaching a certain level of multicellular organization. For example, between one and ten cells migrate to the upper body and rich, where they differentiate to form a dormant cell type called mixosporas, which are more resistant to desiccation and, in general, adverse environmental conditions.

Origin and evolution of bacteria

2009-06-20T20:33:00.000-07:00

The life is now divided into three domains: bacteria (Bacteria), Archaea (Archaea) and eukaryotes (Eukarya). In the domains Archaea and Bacteria are organisms prokaryotes, ie, those whose cells have a nucleus cell differentiation, whereas in the domain Eukarya includes most known life forms and complex (protists, animals, fungi and plants) .

The term "bacteria" was traditionally applied to all prokaryotic organisms. However, molecular phylogeny has been able to demonstrate that the prokaryotic organisms are divided into two domains, originally called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, and now known as Bacteria and Archaea, that evolved independently from a common ancestor. These two domains, together With the domain Eukarya, are the basis of the system of three domains, the current classification system is widely used in bacteriology.

The term Monera, currently in disuse, the old classification of the five kingdoms meant the same as prokaryotes, and is still used in many manuals and textbooks.

The ancestors of modern prokaryotes were the first organisms (the first cells) that develop on land, 3.800-4.000 million years ago. For about 3,000 million years, all remained microscopic organisms, bacteria and archaea are probably the dominant life forms. Although bacterial fossils exist, such as stromatolites, not to preserve their distinctive morphology not can be used to study the history of bacterial evolution, or the source of a bacterial species in particular. However, the sequences themselves can be used to reconstruct the phylogeny of the living, and these studies suggest that archaea and eukaryotes are more interconnected than with bacteria.

It is currently discussed whether the first prokaryotes were bacteria or archaea. Some researchers believe that bacteria is the oldest domain Archaea and Eukarya to drift away from him, while others believe that the oldest domain Archaea. It has been suggested that the most recent common ancestor of bacteria and Archaea might be a hyperthermophilic who lived between 2,500 and 3,200 million years ago. In contrast, other scientists argue that Archaea and Eukarya are relatively recent (some 900 million years) and that evolved from one bacterium Gram-positive (presumably an Actinobacteria) that by replacing the bacterial wall peptidoglycan by another glycoprotein lead to a Neomura.

Bacteria also have been implicated in the second great evolutionary divergence, which separated the Archaea to Eukarya. It is believed that the mitochondria of eukaryotes are from endosimbiosis of alpha proteobacteria. In this case, the ancestor of eukaryotes, possibly related to the archaea (the Neomura), who ingested a proteobacteria , to escape digestion, was developed in the cytoplasm and resulted in the mitochondria. These can be found in all eukaryotes, although sometimes in very small ways, such as the protists amitocondriales. Later, and independently, a second endosimbiosis from some eukaryotic mitochondrial with a cyanobacterium led to the formation of chloroplasts in algae and plants. We know some groups of algae that have clearly originated from subsequent events endosimbiosis by eukaryotic heterotrophs that after ingesting eukaryotic algae, became plast second generation.

History of bacteriology

2009-06-19T20:40:00.000-07:00

The existence of microorganisms was hypothesise the end of the Middle Ages. In the Canon of Medicine (1020), Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna) stated that bodily secretions were contaminated by a multitude of extraneous infectious before a person falls ill, but did not identify these bodies as the primary cause of the disease. When the Black Plague (bubonic plague) reached al-Andalus in the fourteenth century, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib wrote that infectious diseases were caused by infectious entities that penetrate the human body. These ideas infection as a cause of some diseases became popular during the Renaissance, especially through the writings of Girolamo Fracastoro.

The bacteria were first observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1683 using a microscope lens designed simply for himself. initially called animalículos and published his observations in a series of letters sent to the Royal Society. The name bacterium was introduced later in 1828 by Ehrenberg. Derives from the Greek βακτήριον-α, bacterion-a, which means small stick.

Suffering from cholera.

Ill with tetanus.
Louis Pasteur showed in 1859 that the processes of fermentation was caused by the growth of microorganisms, and that growth was not due to spontaneous generation, as was assumed until then. (Ni yeasts or molds, and fungi, organisms normally associated with these processes of fermentation are bacteria). Pasteur, like his contemporary and colleague Robert Koch was an early advocate of the germ theory of infectious diseases. Robert Koch was a pioneer in microbiology, medicine, working with various infectious diseases such as cholera, the Anthrax and tuberculosis. Koch was able to prove the germ theory of infectious disease after tuberculosis in their investigations and it is awarded Nobel in Medicine and Physiology, in the year 1905. established what has been called since the Koch's postulates, through which a number of standardized test to show whether or not an organism was the cause of a particular disease. These postulates are still used today.

Although by the end of the nineteenth century it was already known that bacteria are the cause of many diseases, there were no treatments antibacterials to combat them. It was in 1910 when Paul Ehrlich developed the first antibiotic, by means of some dyes capable of dyeing and selectively kill the spirochetes of the species Treponema pallidum, the bacterium causing the syphilis. Erlich received the Nobel Prize in 1908 for his work in the field of immunology and a pioneer in the use of dyes and dyes to detect and identify bacteria, the fundamental basis of subsequent Gram stain and Ziehl Neelsen staining.

A major advance in the study of the bacteria was discovered by Carl Woese in 1977, that the archaea have an evolutionary line different from bacteria. This new taxonomy phylogeny based on sequencing of ribosomal RNA 16S and divided the prokaryotes into two different evolutionary groups, in a system of three domains: tonnage, Bacteria and Eukarya.

Bacteria

2009-06-19T20:29:00.000-07:00

Bacteria are microorganisms unicellular showing a size of some micrometers in length (between 0.5 and 5 m, usually) and various forms, including spheres, rods and propellers. Bacteria are prokaryotes, and therefore, unlike the cells of eukaryotes (animals, plants, etc.), have no nucleus or organelles internally. Generally have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan. Many bacteria have flagella or other systems of movement and are mobile. The study of bacteria is responsible bacteriology, a branch of microbiology.

Bacteria are the most abundant organisms on the planet. Are ubiquitous, found in all habitats on earth, growing in soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, in the depths of the sea and the earth's crust. Some bacteria can even survive in extreme conditions of outer space. It is estimated that around 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a milliliter of fresh water. In total, it is estimated that approximately 5 × 10 30 bacteria in the world.

The bacteria are essential for the recycling of components, since many important steps of the biogeochemical cycles dependent on them. An example is the fixation of nitrogen atmosphere. However, only half of the edges of known bacteria have species that can be cultivated in the laboratory so much (it is assumed that about 90%) of the existing species of bacteria has not yet been described.

In the human body is about ten times as many bacterial cells as human cells, with a large amount of bacteria on the skin and the digestive tract. Although the protective effect of the immune system causes the vast majority of these bacteria is harmless or beneficial, some pathogenic bacteria can cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, leprosy, typhus, diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc.. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections, with mortality only for tuberculosis nearly two million people a year.

Around the world are using antibiotics to treat bacterial infections. Antibiotics are effective against bacteria and to inhibit the formation of the cell wall or stop other processes in its life cycle. They are also used extensively in agriculture and livestock in the absence of disease, which causes is widespread resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. In industry, bacteria are important in processes such as wastewater treatment, production of cheese, yogurt, butter, vinegar, etc., and in the manufacture of drugs and other chemicals.

Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, now the scientific taxonomy and nomenclature divides into two groups. These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea (Archaea). The division was justified by the large differences in both groups presented biochemical and structural aspects.

Bioethics and Siamese twins

2009-06-19T20:25:00.000-07:00

The theoretical problems posed by the reality of the Siamese (whose probability is actually a small but not negligible: it is estimated, for the moment of birth, in a case about fifty thousand, while only one in two hundred thousand cases is feasible) are a remarkable complexity, while requiring removing most fundamental ideas of anthropology philosophical ideas such as unity or identity of individuals, in person, of rationality, of conscience, responsibility, freedom of the and even the very idea of Nature, now presented as' monstrous', without thereby ceasing to be kind. This obviously constitutes a 'challenge' for the best systems of consensus' principles of bioethics' which having to do with the "autonomy of the individual human" with "human rights" or the "natural right" in general. How to apply, even in retrospect, the principle of 'right of association' [Article XX of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights] to-Thai-Siamese twins Chang and Eng Bunker, who gave the name to the universal phenomenon of monstrous' body double? How to apply (or fail to implement them) the principle of solidarity? Is that the solidarity that kept the brothers, particularly to meet its 32 years in 1843, respectively, when married with Anne sisters Adelaide and Sarah Yates, organized and systematic "solidarity visit" every other week, the houses in which they lived their wives, who were not, in fact, Siamese twins, but living in separate houses a couple of kilometers, solidarity visits, which resulted in nothing less than twenty-one children? And the 'ontological solidarity "of the Bunker brothers will not yield to the solidarity that had many brothers who, from time to time, appear in various places in history, and Mary Eliza Chulkhurst in County of Kent England of the twelfth century, the Tocci brothers in Italy of the nineteenth or Hensel sisters, Abigail and Britanny, in the late twentieth century, and which are present in every case in the writings of naturalists and mythology of the ancients (in the two-headed eagle, the two-headed god Janus, in the centaurs, the androgynous platonic). How to apply to all these cases the principle of the right to movement, that Article XX grants every citizen? (It is assumed that the displacement is not so much a purely geographical sense, in which case each Siamese brother could certainly move to where if I would convince the other, but a social sense, the displacement of an individual in respect of any other individual , to approach any other.) And how to apply these organisms bicípites imprisonment (or execution capital) on the assumption that one of the brothers, but not the other, has been convicted in respect of crime serious because he committed? In a word, you could say that the reality of the inseparable Siamese twins is a "test case" particularly useful in order to comparatively test the extent of the different systems of bioethics to be contrasted, because in this harsh "test bed" we can calibrate not only the ability to analyze a given ethical system, but also resources philosophical (or perhaps mythological, metaphysical or merely rhetorical) that needs to start to formulate an opinion likely to be subject to consensus expertorum.

It is significant, however, on the "retreat" might well consider that it is observed in the textbooks of bioethics, or even in the declarations by the National and International Committees, in all matters concerning the issue of the brothers Siamese, raised as a matter of bioethics (and not as a matter strictly embryological or sociological or psychological). We suspect that this assumption withdrawal has to do with the difficulty that the situations posed by the Siamese systems to raise bioethical principles generally adopted by consensus and which are designed to pass from the coordinates precisely because the "basic bodily subject, almost always associated to metaphysical concepts on the basis of personality (the rational soul, as a substantial individual human body, the 'self-awareness' or' principle of autonomy). In any case, this contrasts relative retreat of the bioethical issues involved in the Siamese twins with the same interest among growers of bioethics raised in recent years, advances in genetic engineering directed towards the cloning of human individuals , although the ethical problem of the Siamese is actually a reference to "this body" (never better), while the problem of the artificial cloning of human individuals is only today, a dubious possibility, rather than by the part of engineering, as well as part of bioethics. It is also true that the difference between a natural event (although monstruoso call) and an artificial event, produced by genetic engineering, could explain the spate of discussions of cloning as a possibility to which we must take a position, to tackle, to block it or push through the relevant legal provisions. However, the issue of cloning naturally referring to the twins or monozygotic twins is at least from a philosophical perspective, the same range as the issue of Siamese twins. Indeed, cloning natural (and, of course, artificial) raises the question of how the essential identity (identity of isos, equal or similar elements of the same class or kind) do not assume the identity ( substantial identity, such as cars, personal individual uniqueness) of cloned individuals, which is distributed under the same essential structure [213]. But the Siamese twins raise the question of how the individual unit (even substantially) from the "body geminated "do not assume that personal identity or uniqueness of the" parts master "of such a unit. The Siamese twins raise the question of the possibility that different people, in their personal uniqueness, can be united in a single individual living or organic substance; clones raises questions about the possibility that individuals of different nature can, however, have the same appearance, even the same personality (as can be replaced in certain circumstances for each other). If, in measuring the extent of these issues, we refer to issues that were raised in traditional Christian theology, would put the issue of correspondence in the Siamese with the mystery of the divine Trinity (one God living unit and three different people ), while the problem of cloning maintained an affinity with the mystery of the Incarnation (as in, different natures come together hypostatic essentially in one person, although in the case of Christ, not the different natures if they were seen as individuals and as a unique person is considered unique in substance and not in substance): not go into the issues of Nestorianism.

In resolution: in cases, not very likely in the short term, the problem of the Siamese twins, as a practical problem, a problem can be regarded as endangered (provided that we assume that the progress of technology or surgical gene can resolve many situations of initial gemination or mature, and in intractable situations, timely prenatal diagnosis allowed a legal abortion of monsters in hand, this assumption is also a consensus extended to the religious or naturalistic more reticent, a consensus on the undesirability of Siamese agencies where such agencies can be avoided in the bioethical standards), the question of the Siamese twins continue to maintain a vital philosophical importance. It would be inappropriate to infer that the missing fact in a more or less near future, will also philosophical question about that. Because the importance of the issue of Siamese agencies must figure in the fact that it is based on as many ideas about individuality, personality, rationality, liberty, & c. -Crossing to the situations of the Siamese twins and of those who are not, can be redefined beyond the conventional framework (that we call the "basic subjects") [532] in which these ideas are often defined by an old tradition, reinforced by our present universal principles that inspire democratic market societies that tend to favor the subject in the elemental composition of the 'individual canonical "that takes into account in the design of production, consumption and as in civil, political, let alone the aesthetic chairing the various arts (including fashion design presented on the catwalks for models that are closer to the individual canonical, what sense would have to present a catwalk dresses Siamese twins to fall?, & c.). Thus, even if not centuries to come there and Siamese agencies, its really simple would be a point of essential reference to build the doctrine of the person and, say, philosophical problems and resolutions that around Siamese are raised, but did not have a direct practical application field, this field would continue to have practical application to be indirectly related to the elementary subjects actually existing, due to the effect that the redefinition of these subjects should be considered as the Siamese. Nor, in our present, a practical problem directly, the issue of Neanderthals, as any people in unknown places on earth, we would require ethical decisions, policies or specific religious (or were they not baptize baptize them? , will they provide for a national ID?). But nevertheless the question of Neanderthals may be placed in brackets by a philosophical anthropology that I would not just make their judgments on the man to the consideration of men currently exist.

Bioethics and genetics

2009-06-17T20:29:00.000-07:00

The new methodologies of recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, allow you to manipulate the human genome and to advance knowledge of its structure and function. The characterization of disease-causing genes, the individual characterization of the genome (DNA fingerprinting), the development of new genetic diagnostic protocols, the discovery of several genes that predispose to certain diseases, susceptibility genes and new therapeutic strategies not only represent an important scientific breakthrough, but on his side applied, promote investment and generate large great interest. It is important to know exactly what these scientific advances before positioning in relation to the possible applications and standardization.

Since the birth of genetics, early this century, had not progressed so rapidly in the acquisition of knowledge in this area of science in the last fifteen years. Genetics, a science that studies the inheritance of characters and the variability, did not have, until very recently, laboratory tools to enable it to directly analyze the information contained in the chromosomes. However, new methods of recombinant DNA, or genetic engineering, have allowed to address the analysis of the structure of the human genome, identifying the information contained in genes, determine the causes of many genetic diseases and influence for the first time in a field of direct application in the world of diagnosis, prevention and therapy. Until very recently, most genetic studies have been made in phage, bacteria, yeast, Drosophila, or fruit fly, and mouse. The conceptual advances made on the structure and function of genes, the genome organization of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, the functions of DNA and the regulation of gene expression were framed in the context of basic science, and therefore far from a possible industrial or commercial application. No geneticist would have thought to grab the interest of the media the eve of a congress, or expected to obtain a higher level of funding to other areas of experimental, not even dreamed of patenting their results. However, the situation

Against perfection. Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering

2009-06-17T20:27:00.000-07:00

Michael Sandel, Harvard professor, is known for his critique of liberal political philosophy of John Rawls, from a communitarian. However, several years working on issues of bioethics, not only from a theoretical perspective, but looking at the practical impact in the U.S. have been scientific advances. For three years he was a member of the President's Council on Bioethics, an advisory body of President Bush.

In fact, this book addresses, in a simple way, many of the issues that the Council has had to deal with. Sandel introduces the reader with a detailed presentation of the cases, the dilemmas faced by bioethics, since the cloning of pets to the donation of sperm or sex selection and genetic characteristics of children.

In the case of a lesbian couple seeking to have a deaf child from a donor is also deaf, Sandel finds the key philosophical question that must be put in the bioethical debate: what is it that is questionable: the same choice of the genetic characteristics characteristics of the child or elected? For Sandel, the quest for perfection, which traditionally has characterized the practice genetics behind what, in ethical terms, is relevant: the ability of parents to choose arbitrarily the type of children they want.

The impact caused a rapid technical progress is so deep that exceeds the required ethical and raised theological issues that surround it. Questions that, precisely because of their radicalism, politicians tend to ignore.

Sandel part of that life is a gift received and, within this logic, parenthood, more than any other relationship, it shows the "openness to the free." These intuitions are opposed to it in the U.S. has been called "hiperpaternidad" is believed to be the mission of parents to ensure their children a degree of refinement. The author sees this, however, a desire contrary to the standard of unconditional love.

But Sandel's conclusions are refined further: although it would not have any aspiration, something is wrong in that ambition, which leads us to want to genetically identify our species. To think as free beings experience it is necessary for our freedom by reference to something that by its very nature, is not available to us. Sandel agrees with this point Habermas: eugenics is a bad thing because it promotes the wrong attitude toward the world, the domination and control.

The best of 'Against Perfection' is the section entitled "Embryo Ethics" (pp. 153-195), which convincingly argues Sandel production and killing of human embryos for biomedical purposes.

The rest of the book tackles the genetic improvement, but it does not rely on liberal principles but superstitious notions such as "sanctity of nature" (p. 141). Unlike other antieugenistas, Sandel has the good sense to recognize that it is not possible to condemn the genetic optimization invoking liberal principles: "An ethic of autonomy and equality can not explain what's wrong with eugenics" (p. 124).

Someone read this book, I commented that when the book was read by Michael Sandel, had assaulted the suspicion that this philosopher, although antieugenista like this could actually be a eugenic camouflaged. After all, in 'Against Perfection' Sandel argues convincingly that any two ideas vital sign liberal eugenic repelerán and delighted the majority of antieugenistas.

These ideas are:
1 You can not condemn the genetic optimization relying purely liberal principles;
and 2 production and killing of human embryos for biomedical purposes is morally justified.

Genetic engineering: the challenge for bioethics.

2009-06-17T20:23:00.000-07:00

Doctor of Law, University of Salamanca, Spain. Degree in Criminology. Professor at the Faculty of Law, University of Buenos Aires. Defender of the poor, and absent Unable to oral Criminal Courts of the Federal Capital.

During the last decade, the international community has been shaken by the announcements of spectacular advances in molecular biology, focusing essentially on the field of genetics. What seemed to be a forbidden territory to the knowledge of man-the key to the mystery of life began to be unraveling.

These promising developments in science took unprepared to disciplines and must be faced, raw and unexpectedly, a number of pressing questions, and although these questions do not constitute, in essence, that the new formulation of the dilemma of the ancestral limits of human exist-whether-and what the truth is that the ethical response would not have reached the present-until-the depth, breadth and richness that the issue requires study in [1]. Needless to say that, in the absence of a coherent structure of ethical justification, the legal response is incomplete, irregular or nonexistent directly.

This picture, taken to the field of training of community awareness on this issue, edging becomes even more alarming. The average citizen only access to news defectively produced by the mass media, which are handled based on two opposing assumptions: the miracle or the apocalypse, leaving room for a rational approach to the subject.

Is no stranger to confusion, lack of precision or even knowledge, on the exact content of these new scientific practice, its scope and its possibilities.

At a first sight, it is easy to detect that the usual discourse confuses the procedures of genetic engineering with the medical treatment to alleviate infertility. It then clear that genetic engineering involves all of the techniques to alter or modify the estate of any kind, either to overcome genetic diseases (gene therapy) or with the purpose of producing or processing changes experimental purpose, ie to achieve an individual with characteristics so far absent in the species (genetic engineering) [2].

For its part, the call handling gynecological covers all medical procedures intended to overcome infertility through the realization of fertilization by non-natural (artificial insemination, fertilization in vitro, GIFT, ...), which in any matter of genetic modification.

While handling gynecological as main issues in dispute relating to the same techniques [3], but not its objective to obtain an offspring infertile couple, in the field of genetic engineering are placed under review because of its very be, that is: Is it permissible to alter the genetic heritage of humanity?

Moreover, while the objections to artificial insemination is limited to his practice in the human species, who questioned the advances in genetic engineering which involves also disapprove of the genetic alteration of any living thing, but giving less disvalor. It is at this point to reflect briefly on the content and scope of these procedures and, basically, on their real potential in the near future.

Every human being has a budget of approximately one hundred thousand genes, arranged in pairs, which are what give it its spread. Throughout its existence will develop some of the information contained in these genes, but which may never happen is that your body expresses a chromosome away from your information. The language in that such information is written is the same for all living things [4].

Dussaut, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1980), stated: "It's just the order they occur these four letters [5] what distinguishes maize rose or a bacterium, an elephant or a man" [ 6].

Owners of this knowledge, would be two roads to travel by scientists: a) to translate all of the information contained in the chromosome of different living beings, for the realization of a predictive medicine, and in the future farther, to a gene therapy to rebuild chromosomes carry serious diseases, b) explore the possibility that the genetic information contained in an organism can be inserted into another that lacks it, still going through the species barrier.

a) In the first line of work is the HUGO project, which began officially on 1 October 1990 in the United States of America, which aims to decode the information contained in each of the genes that comprise the human chromosome. In the same sense, June 11, 1990, the Council of Europe adopted a program for the analysis of the genome, both initiatives are accompanied by Japan, with its "Human Frontier Science Program." It argues that the complete sequencing of the genome-experience of the highest economic cost-enable a decisive breakthrough in gene therapy, enabling a predictive medicine out of the planet that most diseases known.

Unfortunately, it has not been clearly spelled out what would be the way to achieve this panacea. There is no doubt that once the project may be known with a high degree of certainty the content of the genome of a given individual: if we have a propensity to own eyes blue or brown, whether it is high or low, if you tend to develop diabetes or certain cancers, it will be carrying the Down syndrome or Alzheimer's disease ... but, how and who will handle this information?

If you are trying to achieve a humanity is "perfect", it seems clear that the safest way is to spread as the only valid method of procreation fertilization in vitro, allowing genetically manipulate the embryo by removing the extra condition that affects them. Needless to say, this practice-at the moment of realization is impossible not encouraged by the scientists, with a severe case of abnormality of the embryo suggests, quite simply, not its implementation [7].

Serious ethical dilemmas arise here: is it valid to discard an embryo because it Extrauterine predictive genetic information of a serious illness? How important should take the disease to justify the non-implantation of the embryo and, if the option is to change the allocation chromosomes of the embryo, scientists can alter the genetic heritage of human kind, ignoring the ultimate consequences of such alteration ? Recall that any tampering in the first days of embryonic development to reach all their cells and transmitted to their offspring unfailingly. From that point mutation and its unpredictable consequences artificial have been finally integrated into the genetic resource of humanity, that appeal has remained unchanged for millennia, only subject to the modifications imposed by the evolution, allowing the man to survive as a species and dominate the world.

Similar objections to gene therapy offers the amount of genome change, when it is performed on the germ cells of an individual [8]. It should be noted that the ethical debate on the new starting point. With arguments that minimize the risks or state that is worth running, it was supported by the possibility of altering the genome claimed the right of mankind to master its own destiny to contribute, by all means, try to improve their quality of life [9].

The object exposed to the alteration of the chromosomal composition not start the significant achievements that undoubtedly caused the complete sequencing of the genome, in terms of preventing the development of certain diseases, genetically predisposed by changing habits or their environment carrier. b) This line of research, which has already given many fruits, is, however, closer to science fiction.

As already noted, the language that is encoded in the heritage of all living things is the same, just vary the amount and quality of information contained in each genome. From this scientists pergeñaron the possibility of introducing genetic information from one species into another chromosome, and try to express it with his own body, these instructions. Beyond theory, this possibility could be realized only in 1972 after the discovery of recombinant DNA by the Nobel laureate Paul Berg [10].

With this new biotechnology, during 1977, was to transfer the chemical synthesis of a human gene in the bacterium Escherichia coli. This bacterium, the genetic information incorporated in the human genome produced hormone somatostatin [11]. At present there are numerous cases of human production of substances through biotechnology, the production is exemplary enough by this method of insulin and interferon.

No objection appears at first glance at what looks like a major breakthrough in science, but we stop short in the procedures used in the questions arising upon the circumstance, no doubt, that what is introduced into a bacterium, is My more or less than the human chromosome.

To this we add that this technique opens the door to possibilities for experimentation much more complex and that both would seriously jeopardize the survival and dignity of the human species. Be feasible to alter the genome by introducing genetic information from other species, who assures us that no attempt to create an individual with the strength of the chimp or the sight of a lynx?.

Also in this humanity can no longer be affected by the direct manipulation of their genetic heritage, but by genetic transformation of plant species essential to its survival or the irresponsible release into the environment of genetically mutated organisms.

The picture is complex and requires an urgent bioethical reflection that serves as a beacon for the development of standards that all channel activity towards the ultimate goal of common good. These rules, for their part, are not the product of a pressure group or another, but a deep maturity and wise on the subject, as background to recognize the consensus of the community adequately informed of the basic tenets that are intended to protect .

I believe the path we have chosen not return, is puerile claim the elimination of biotechnology in the world today, but it is equally irresponsible to close our eyes to this reality that we surpassed, in delegating decisions to the scientists must take the entire community. The survival of the human species and the rights of every man to be unique to have a genetic heritage and to preserve inviolate the privacy of that heritage are the core values that are at stake.

[1] So great has been the impact of these scientific and technical advances in the traditional ethics, which has a branch directly connected to the problem of Life: Bioethics and Moral of the body (cf. Vidal, Marciano: Bioethics - Bioethics Sound Studios, Madrid, 1989, pp. 16 et seq.) discipline that is devoted to the publication that includes this work.

[2] Cf. the work of the author Handling Genetics and Criminal Justice, Ed University, Buenos Aires, 1994. [3] The existence of human life worthy of absolute protection, and therefore intangible, from the moment of conception, thereby not only rejects any kind of experimentation on embryos but also the freezing of the same techniques and even fertilization in vitro in that necessarily mean a significant loss of embryos.

[4] This structure was broken in 1953 by Watson and Crik which determined that all life on Earth is scheduled and consolidated into two helices wound on one another, each of which consists of a sequence of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is in turn composed of a nitrogenous base (which may be adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine) a molecule of sugar and phosphoric acid. The order in which these nucleotides are arranged along the double helix of acid deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) sets the message that writing is the speech of all living organism gene.

[5] The four points referred to are the four nitrogenous bases (see note 4) that are identified by the first letter of their names. [6] Cf Dussaut, J., Respect the man's genetic heritage, in "The Courier", May 1988, pp. 20. [7] support this position, Marciano Vidal says: "... belongs to the responsibility of professionals do not put those embryos that suffer a significant abnormality, or due to which the development would not have occurred or an intrauterine fetus with severe malformations. This action has been advised by the analogy with natural processes of human reproduction. It is also required by the right and duty of the human eugenics "(op. cit., pág.123).

[8] no ethical objection arises, beyond the requirements that must accompany any experimental therapy, if the genetic manipulation of somatic cells, since the changes that are made will not be hereditary diseases.
[9] On the genetic manipulation of the vine. "Extensive" work of the author cited in note 3.

[10] The molecular cloning process consists essentially of the following phases:

a) is part of a DNA carrying the genes of interest are obtained and fragments thereof, some of which must necessarily contain those genes;

b) the fragments bind to a DNA molecule that acts as a vector, forming a recombinant DNA.

c) introducing the recombinant DNA in host cells appropriate for which the expression of foreign genes. (Cf. Domínguez Rodríguez, Luis, projection applied genetic engineering techniques, "Themes of Microbiology," Vol I, Salamanca, 1983.

Genetic manipulation in humans

2009-06-16T20:28:00.000-07:00

"An investigation, treatment or diagnosis in relation to an individual's genome may only be made after careful assessment of risks and benefits involved and in accordance with any requirement of national law" (Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights, Article 4a).

The purpose of genetic analysis, that is genome research, represents a clear positive. Like any other science, thus obtaining new knowledge. However, in some cases, a genetic analysis may be aimed as a result of the treatment that received diagnosis can lead to abortion. For this to determine the legality of these actions should be asking what the purpose of them.

Prenatal analysis used to determine whether an embryo carries a defect or genetic in families where parents are likely to convey to your child any genetic defect. The study can prevent future therapeutic actions in this case is ethically permissible because it is looking for a therapeutic purpose in the analysis.

However, prenatal diagnosis is not always used for this purpose. In most cases, genetic tests are done to decide whether to abort or not. In these cases, prenatal genetic diagnosis is perverted and is therefore ethically unacceptable. If it recognizes the intention of aborting in case of diagnosing the presence of a defective gene, genetic analysis is not admissible because it would be an indication for a confirmatory decision beforehand. There are various arguments that attempt to justify the termination of pregnancy for eugenic reasons. Such is the case for the thesis that argues that the birth of disabled children would be irresponsible. Other statements claim that children with defects are not included within the desired children. All these and similar explanations are unacceptable because it totally ignores the respect for the dignity of every human being.

It should be noted that most studies of prenatal diagnosis was performed in order to decide on the continuation of pregnancy or not. Therefore techniques are used which have to act before the end of the period of "legal abortion" is just the period of greatest risk to the embryo. Therefore, in addition to the illegality implies that this performance is the fact the potential danger posed by these techniques for development of the embryo.

Lately, many insurance companies are doing genomic analysis of the petitioners of life insurance. To this end seek the greatest benefit to discriminate (excluding taxes or abusive), who seems to have a predisposition to serious illness or premature death, according to the knowledge so far. Again again violating human equality.

In this regard, the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights states: "No one shall be subjected to discrimination based on genetic characteristics that the object or effect of violating their fundamental rights and freedoms and recognition of their dignity" ( art. 6). In addition, the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine, Article 11 states that prohibit all forms of discrimination against individuals because of their genetic .Apart from this, there are dilemmas about whether a person should know whether or not he is going to have a disease, especially if it is serious because of mental disorder that could lead.

Gene therapy in embryonic cells give rise to very conflicting ethical issues. This is an action on the embryo but with the ability to produce cells omnipotent. Overall, this intervention is not accepted by any scientist. Here we reach the spot where experimental genetic manipulation is complete. The consequences are unpredictable and abuse is at its scheduled start with a discussion on the responsibility of an embryonic cell therapy, is meaningless.

However, as in any action on a medical patient is lawful therapeutic interventions on the human embryo, which is not exposed to disproportionate risks, which aimed at a cure, improving their health or their individual survival.

The Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine states in Article 13: "Only an intervention that may be aimed at modifying the human genome for preventive, diagnostic or therapeutic, and only when not aimed at introducing a change in the genome of the offspring. "

In general, all action on embryonic cells / germ are illegal and ethically impermissible. This qualification has a broad moral justification. For starters, how to obtain these cells is not lawful, because it represents an assault on human dignity and in particular against their sexuality. Secondly, the purpose of rejecting human procreation distorted. Furthermore, it is clear eugenic action with disdain and discrimination against the individual due to their genome. The effects on the person and on the offspring of that person are unknown. Human embryos can not be treated as objects of research. This could mean the complete denial of any basic text to ensure a democratic society.

Actions on embryonic and germ cells are very diverse. There is a place, in vitro fertilization with pre-implantation diagnosis. This technique is used with couples who are at risk of transmitting a serious genetic disease to offspring. In these cases is an in vitro fertilization and are left to divide. In the period of 8 cells is taken and examined whether one has inherited the pathogenic. If so discarding the morulae and fertilization is another, if not it is implanted in the woman's uterus. This technique is ethically illegal, although it is legally permitted.

Another technique is to add to morulae 4 or 8 blastomeres a pluripotent stem cells that is genetically sound and capable of correcting the change suffered by the embryo, creating a chimera. It is also technically possible to introduce genes into vectors with the blastomeres, but is very risky. This technique can be used with the germ cells. It differs from gene therapy of differentiated cells that in all cases these changes can be transmitted to offspring.

It is also possible to act on germ cells choose the sex of the future child. There is a clinic in Holland, which offers some 200,000 ptas choose the sex of the children with a success rate of 90%. Some researchers justify the lawfulness of this technique as a way of preserving the offspring of one sex-related diseases (hemophilia). Others add that a person has the right to choose how it will be their next child as if the car you choose is going to buy. Apart from these actions are ethically illicit illegal in certain countries. The Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits the latter case but not the first.

One possible action on the embryo consists of hybridization with other animal species. Although it is strictly forbidden implantation of human embryos for experimentation, it is possible to perform experiments of the kind of mix a man and a dog and implanted into a monkey. These practices are prohibited, but there is still no legislation to criminalize.

There is currently a worldwide ban on human embryo research. Emerging demands for regulation of embryo competence at the global level, arguing that the germ line is shared by all and that has arisen from a common diversification. According to recent studies, the

Genetic Engineering

2009-06-16T20:26:00.000-07:00

It is called genetic engineering to a range of techniques that allow the scheduled transfer of genes between different organisms. It consists of a reunion of artificial DNA molecules with the aim of isolating genes or DNA fragments, cloned, and transfer to another genome that are expressed. Genetic engineering can be described as the formation of new combinations of genes by isolation of a fragment of DNA, the creation of certain changes in it and the reintroduction of this fragment in the same body or another. When new genes are introduced into plants or animals, resulting organisms now known as transgenic and gene introduced transgenes.

Genetic engineering as such is not a science but a collection of techniques to isolate and modify genes.
Also known as recombinant DNA technique. Genetic engineering is not one thing, but a set of techniques:
Extraction of DNA
Reverse transcriptase
Chain reaction polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Molecular hybridization of nucleic acids: Southern blot, Northern blot and Dot Blot
Cloning

Applications

Cartography. Is the Human Genome Project. Is to try to describe all the genes of the human body, locate and sequenced.

Diagnosis. There are many diseases caused by genetic defects. Through genetic engineering techniques, it is possible to identify genetic defects or predict and diagnose diseases appear or might appear.

Identification (forensic / paternity leave). Everyone has a different genetic code (except the twins unizigóticos), as do we all have a different fingerprint, with the peculiarity that has similar characteristics to those of our relatives. This is possible with a high degree of reliability, identify people or determine paternity.

Therapeutics. Using genetic engineering techniques will be possible to correct genetic defects that cause genetic diseases. The "genetic treatments" include repair or replacement of defective genes or deletions.

Biotechnology. Is to alter the genomes of living organisms to provide them with some quality that had not (plants resistant to frost, fruits before they mature, they grow more crops ,...).

The applications of genetic engineering can be divided into five work areas. Genetic engineering can be used:

Microorganisms
In plants
In animals
In cultured cells of animals, plants or humans
In humans

Microorganisms manipulated by genetic engineering can be used to produce human proteins for medical applications. In 1978, a bacterium that was "programmed" produce human insulin, which has been marketed since 1982. Because of this it is possible to obtain insulin in large quantities and low costs, but it is safer than insulin that was used before (pork). This has been achieved also with other proteins such as human growth hormone, clotting factor, ...

These microorganisms have also been used in agriculture, can improve yields by providing resistance to frost, diseases, herbicides and other factors. Have also been used in food, in particular for producing bread, but these applications have been highly controversial in every sense.

Genetic engineering in animals has been used for various purposes. There have been transgenic animals produce human proteins in their milk (a 1-antitrypsin). Or to study the development of human diseases, in particular, has a mouse "knock-out" the gene for cystic fibrosis in order to explore possible gene therapies.

Genetic engineering, acting on plants and animals has increased the amount of certain products in these organisms. This has led some ethical issues which will then be treated at work.

Cell cultures with animal and plant has been producing human proteins of interest and / or men. These cells have potential genetic factories of any product. It is also possible to manufacture them with viruses, which will be used as vectors in gene therapy. Other applications of these cells are themselves empirical, to study the functioning of the regulation of gene expression, interaction with various factors, ...

A variation of genetic recombination is transgenesis. This methodology is a viable intervention in the genetic heritage of one being with the addition of new genes and hence alteration of its characteristics. Today is accomplished in a few months what nature would have taken centuries or millennia to produce new animal species. In transgenesis, completely breaks the natural barrier between species, and it is theoretically possible to insert genes in case it is impossible to occur in nature which tends to preserve the difference between species and even facilitates the creation of hybrids.

Very different implementation is very special to clone animals, specifically, genetically manipulated so as to produce in their milk products foreign to her, but very useful in human therapeutics. Thus, there are sheep and goats that produce factor VIII and other products of therapeutic interest in their milk. How to get a transgenic animal that secretes a particular product in the milk is quite difficult, the new cloning technique would avoid having to repeat the gene: cloning sufficient number of its cells to be a powerhouse, but without subjecting the animal to a inhuman treatment. In this vein might include investigations currently under way to obtain transgenic animals as donors of organs for transplantation to man, although still quite questionable as to its practical application, is a promising line of research that could yield results only large-scale with the incorporation of techniques for cloning of transgenic animals obtained.

Animals may be treated to genetically improve the weight gain, to create animals that grow faster, improve resistance to diseases and increase fertility. Genetic engineering of livestock is expected to have a major impact on agriculture, but raises ethical questions about animal welfare and safety. Welfare problems can be achieved by manipulation of body size, shape, or reproductive ability through breeding, nutrition, hormone therapy or the insertion of genes, on the way to increase the risk deterioration, metabolic diseases, or skeletal problems gynecological, perinatal mortality or mental disorders. All entries must be submitted to an analysis where the benefits are compared with the suffering of the animal. In practice it is difficult to measure human and animal welfare. It is therefore necessary to have good advice on the implications of the expression of transgenes and establish criteria to ensure the welfare of animals.

evolution or aggression against our own nature

2009-06-16T20:19:00.000-07:00

In recent years interest in knowing the mechanisms by which genes are expressed and how it regulates the expression has fostered the development of techniques, allowing the transfer of genetic information from one cell to another, receiving the name of genetic engineering or manipulation genetics.
The first act of genetic engineering on a scientific basis can be attributed to Mendel, when investigating the legacy, mixed peas in a selective manner, operating on the cores of the seeds planted. (2)

After the publication of the first cloning of a mammal in the United Kingdom, there has been a big boom in all these techniques because they have created expectations and also many fears about human cloning. Then work began on the prohibition of human cloning by the aggression that this implies for human dignity. Despite this, it has already been tried. At the time of Michelangelo, a scientist at the time tried to cross two close relatives of the great artist repeating all the conditions were in his gestation. (2)

This paper will analyze what is genetic engineering which involves scientific and ethically at all levels that is being implemented or which might be implemented.

Concepts
Before entering the field, you must clarify key concepts in the field of genetic engineering:

Ethics (2)

Ethics define the core values that guide towards the correct actions, and establishes rules, guidelines, and policies that drive and sustain these values. Knowledge of the area and the discourse of ethics is crucial for professionals involved in science (and indeed health professionals are) because science itself is fundamentally based on ethical values, especially on the accuracy and the benefit to others.

Since Hippocrates, the ethics of medical practice is based on six principles (preserving life, alleviating suffering, do no harm, tell the truth to the patient, respecting patient autonomy, and treating patients with justice). These principles can be summarized into three: beneficence, autonomy and justice.

According to the principle of beneficence, the patient benefits arising from the application of a technology or process must be greater than its risks. The application of any medical technology involves some risk to the patient, but if the expected benefits outweigh the probable risks, there is no conflict in the ethical principle of beneficence. Thus the principle of beneficence provided the team is set / out, namely that there must be a reasonable proportion between the likely risks and benefits. Therefore, the ethical principle in this key decision-maker is the physician, who knows the balance between risk and benefit for the patient.

The principle of autonomy states that you must inform the patient appropriately and respect their decision on the application of the technology chosen. Sometimes, for example, when the patient has problems of consciousness, the positive act of accepting the application of a procedure may not be possible. In these cases, it is not possible "acceptance reflective, some authors suggest as a criterion the decision based on the" no refusal ". But outside of these exceptional cases, one of the key issues in implementing this principle is the natural variability in the decisions of patients. The decision-maker is, in theory, the patient. However, in most cases the patient usually does not have sufficient and appropriate information to make their decision. Accordingly or leave the decision up to the doctor, or decided through information and advice from a doctor, so that in practice is the doctor or his influence, who has a relevant role in the principle of autonomy.

According to the principle of justice, an action is unethical if not equal, ie if it is not available for all who need it. Ensuring equal opportunities for all citizens without discrimination and avoid interfering economic policies, are fundamental ethical issues in access to effective medical technologies.

Bioethics in genetic engineering

2009-06-15T20:47:00.000-07:00

Advances in molecular biology and genetics have expanded the possibilities in the diagnosis and treatment of hereditary diseases, which, like the research in this area has exceeded its legal and ethical regulation. This work aims to analyze these developments in terms of scientific and technical competence to undertake the specialist, but rather reviews the history of genetic engineering, legal and ethical implications of the Human Genome Project (HGP) of in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (FIVET) of the research being done and is possible in embryos, other fields of genetics and cloning, especially human germ cells and also as regards the genetic diagnosis Its impact family and social work, treatment by genetic engineering to cloning to obtain organs and tissue for transplants and the use of genetic engineering in the biomedical industry. It is considered that to avoid such developments become the man, we need the implementation and involvement of multidisciplinary organizations to control legal and ethical

Basic Concepts of Plant Biotechnology

2009-06-15T20:45:00.000-07:00

Basic Concepts of Plant Biotechnology for Monsanto in Spain [Monsanto in Spain that a company dedicated to opening new doors to improve the way we grow food around the world. Every day discovering this small signs that combine to solve bigger problems as the cultivation of healthy food and plenty more with less pesticides, development of integrated solutions that increase productivity while protecting the environment and reduces the cost of agriculture. The team Monsanto is doing this now.] For centuries humankind has made improvements to the plants grow through the selection and improvement of plants and hybridization? controlled pollination of plants. Plant biotechnology is an extension of this tradition to modify plants, with one very important difference? plant biotechnology allows the transfer of a greater variety of genetic information in a more precise and controlled. Unlike the traditional way of changing the plant including the uncontrolled crossing of hundreds or thousands of genes, plant biotechnology allows for the selective transfer of a gene or a few desirable genes. With its increased accuracy, this technique enables breeders to develop varieties with specific desirable characters and incorporate those that are not. Many of these characters developed in the new varieties defend plants from insects, diseases and weeds that can devastate cultivation. Others incorporate quality improvements, such as fruits and vegetables more tasty; advantages for processing (eg tomatoes with a higher content of solids), and increased nutritional value (oil seeds which produce oils with lower saturated fat). These improvements in crop production may contribute to a healthy and abundant food supply and protect our environment for future generations

The holy grail of plant biotechnology

2009-06-14T20:47:00.001-07:00

Biotechnologists have been hard to develop improved varieties of plants we know today, that due to current techniques of genetic transformation are not specific (genes inserted into plants are housed in random locations of the genome) and are relatively inefficient (with many problems for Regener explants and obtain the desired characteristics).

A novel technique for inserting desired genes into plants has been able to solve these problems. The zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs) modules are based on DNA recognition of zinc fingers fused to an endonuclease capable of cutting the DNA double strand at specific sites and produce a genetic recombination (as occurs in a meiosis) . In addition, the ZFN can be modified to recognize any DNA sequence that we want, so I can design for cutting sites of the genome of a plant.
For the present study was to use white corn IPK1 gene, which codes for inositol-1 ,3,4,5,6-pentakisfosfato 2-kinase, enzyme that catalyzes the final step in phytate in seeds corn. This gene was se-lected because they reduce the amount of phytate in seeds is of great agricultural importance, since this compound represents 75% of phosphorus in seeds, is an antinutricional in feed grains and contributes to pollution of the environment through the flow of waste.

First it was shown that the cuts in the DNA produced by the ZFN can be repaired by the cell machinery but generating deletions and insertions at the site of cut. Genetic transformation was tested with ZNF using a herbicide resistance gene (PAT). Two vectors were created, one that expresses resistance to the herbicide on their own (with its own promoter) and a non-autonomous (usa promoter IPK1). As expected, the standalone version of the TAP was more efficient than the non-autonomous, but the latter was more efficient than using traditional genetic transformation.

Then they tested whether the ZNF was specific and did not produce unwanted modifications in the genome of the plant, this gene was used to IPK2, that 98% of its sequence is identical to IPK1. No changes were found in IPK2 suggesting that ZNF has a specific action.

Finally examined whether the inserted herbicide resistance in maize persisted in subsequent generations. There were two tests, one autopolinizaron resistant plants and the other crossed with cultivated maize (DAS5XH751) without resistance to the herbicide. Seeing the genotype of the plants generated by self-segregation was observed 2:6:1 (wild: heterozygous: homozygous) and in plants generated by crossing showed a 1:1 segregation (wild: heterozygous). This means that resistance can be passed on to the next generation through normal sexual reproduction.

Engineering Plant Biotechnology

2009-06-14T20:43:00.000-07:00

Description:
Engineering Plant Biotechnology is unique in the country, which will supply the growing need for highly trained professionals in the use of biotechnology tools applied to agricultural and forestry sectors. The great impetus given by the government of Chile to the development of biotechnology and the importance of forestry and agricultural sectors, both in the region and in the country, requires highly trained professionals working in plant biotechnology. Therefore, graduates of this race will be pioneers in an area of great development in a globalized world, where there are challenges for the export of plant varieties, conservation of biodiversity, increased crop productivity and current generation of genetically modified organisms, which Responses to environmental problems, food and human health.

This new race is held under the aegis of the Faculty of Forestry, in conjunction with the recently opened Center for Biotechnology, University of Concepcion. During the race, the student can access the Center, which is implemented with modern equipment that will allow the student to know and work with cutting-edge technologies in the area of biotechnology and genetic engineering of plants. The Faculty of Forest Sciences and Biotechnology Center, with teachers and researchers of high academic standards and maintain agreements with other biotechnology centers and foreign universities, allowing students conduct research stays abroad.

The newly expanded building of the Faculty of Forestry, has an area of 3,300 m2, which includes teaching rooms, conference and laboratories, among others. The Biotechnology Center has an area of 3,000 m2, with highly specialized equipment.

Duration:
5 years.

Academic degree:
Degree in Plant Biotechnology.

Professional Title:
Engineer in Plant Biotechnology.

Occupational field:
Plant Biotechnology The Engineer may exercise in the biotechnology industry, forestry, farming, fruit growing, universities, research institutes and centers and free exercise of the profession, both nationally and internationally. In their professional plant biotechnology applied to different areas, such as developing new varieties of plants, genetic engineering, plant micropropagation, biosafety, genetically modified organisms, preservation of biodiversity, implementation and monitoring frameworks biotechnological and bioremediation of soils among others.

The Benefits of Biotechnology

2009-06-13T20:41:00.000-07:00

Benefits of biotechnology, today and in the future are almost limitless.
Plant biotechnology has the potential to produce crops that will not only taste better but also be healthier.
Agronomic characters embodied by biotechnology (such as resistance to insects or herbicides) increase the value of agricultural crops to allow them to do things that increase production or reduce the need for other inputs such as fertilizers or agrochemicals. Among our products that currently have built characters that give higher yields with lower costs (since they allow better control of pests and weeds), including potatoes, corn and soybeans. Potatoes are already using 40% less chemical insecticides to conventional varieties.

Quality attributes, or "yield" to help enhance the product to consumers by improving the quality of food and fiber produced by the plant. It is likely that the future will be able to offer potatoes that absorb less oil when you fry, corn and soybeans with higher protein content, tomatoes with a fresh flavor and strawberries that retain their natural sweetness.

One day, the seeds will become centers of production like no other with great energy efficiency and environmentally friendly, able to manufacture products that today come from non-renewable resources. A plant of spring rapeseed (canola), for example, can become a factory adding beta carotene to canola oil to alleviate the nutritional deficiency that causes night blindness.

Why It's Important Biotechnology

2009-06-13T20:39:00.000-07:00

Many people are beginning to understand and appreciate more deeply the links between human well-being, social stability and the natural processes of the earth that sustain life. We realize that the ability of land to continue providing air and pure water, productive soil and a rich diversity of plant and animal life is vital to ensure our quality of life and that of our descendents.

But the current population growth is already over-the Earth's resources. One of the few things that you can predict with certainty is that, in future, the world's population will virtually double to reach close to 10 billion by the year 2030. Humanity must respond to growing pressures on natural resources of the land to feed a continuously growing population.
Biotechnology, which enables the transfer of a specific character of a class or species of plant to another, is an important piece to solving the challenge of sustainable development.

Experts assert that biotechnology innovations will triple crop yields without requiring additional land, thus saving natural forests and the habitat of animals. Other innovations can reduce or eliminate dependence on chemicals that can contribute to environmental degradation, preserve other land and water resources.
Many experts agree that the world can not afford to wait any longer before acting. If we act now to develop the technology and infrastructure necessary to meet the future needs of humanity, we can feed the world for centuries to come and improve the quality of life for people around the world.

Basic Concepts of Plant Biotechnology

2009-06-13T20:38:00.001-07:00

For centuries humankind has made improvements to the plants grow through the selection and improvement of plants and hybridization - the controlled pollination of plants.

Plant biotechnology is an extension of this tradition to modify plants, with one very important difference - plant biotechnology allows the transfer of a greater variety of genetic information in a more precise and controlled.
Unlike the traditional way of changing the plant including the uncontrolled crossing of hundreds or thousands of genes, plant biotechnology allows for the selective transfer of a gene or a few desirable genes. With its increased accuracy, this technique enables breeders to develop varieties with specific desirable characters and incorporate those that are not.

Many of these characters developed in the new varieties defend plants from insects, diseases and weeds that can devastate the crop. Others incorporate quality improvements, such as fruits and vegetables more tasty; advantages for processing (eg tomatoes with a higher content of solids), and increased nutritional value (oil seeds which produce oils with lower saturated fat).

These improvements in crop production may contribute to a healthy and abundant food supply and protect our environment for future generations.

Genzyme acquires product portfolio of Bayer

2009-06-12T20:43:00.000-07:00

The biotechnology company Genzyme, based in Boston, has finalized the transaction with the German company Bayer Healthcare, to acquire worldwide rights to develop and market a potentially revolutionary treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS) called Campath ® (alemtuzumab) .

In addition, Genzyme has acquired the rights for marketing and distribution of two drugs in oncology area, Fludir ® (fludarabine phosphate), Leukine ® (sargramostim).
Genzyme with these acquisitions will increase its global presence in the field of oncology and multiple sclerosis, and its growth is to expand the areas of transplantation and hematologic malignancies, with a portfolio of products covering acute and chronic leukemia, transplantation bone marrow and the management of post-transplant complications.

Biotechnology

2009-06-12T20:42:00.000-07:00

Biotechnology is the technology applied to biological processes and systems, especially used in agriculture, pharmacy, food science, forest science and medicine. Is developed in a multidisciplinary approach involving various disciplines and sciences such as biology, biochemistry, genetics, virology, agronomy, engineering, physics, chemistry, medicine and health among others. Has great impact on the pharmacy, the medicine, the microbiology, the science of food, the mining and agriculture among other fields. Probably the first who used this term was the engineer Hungarian Karl Ereki in 1919, who introduced it in his book Biotechnology in meat and milk production of a large farm.

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity of 1992, biotechnology could be defined as "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof to make or modify products or processes for specific use." The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity defines modern biotechnology as the application of: Techniques in vitro of nucleic acid, including deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) recombinant and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or
The fusion of cells beyond the family taxonomic barriers in excess of physiological nature of the reproductive or recombination, and are not techniques used in the reproduction and traditional selection

Biological agents and bioterrorism

2009-05-30T20:44:00.000-07:00

The use of biological agents in order to attack, disable or kill the adversary has been a phenomenon that has been repeated many times in human history. For example, the use of natural toxins derived from ergot was used by the Assyrian army 600 years BC with the purpose of invading and conquering the West Asia. In the middle fourteenth century, the plague or Black Death spread across Europe, the origins of this pandemic are related to the invasion of the city by the army Kaffas Tatar, who besieged the city and forced its inhabitants to surrender intentionally infected with Yersinia pestis, launching over the city walls the bodies of their own soldiers killed by plague. This epidemic caused the annihilation of one third of Europe's population at the time. The same strategy was used by war the Russian army against Sweden in 1710.

The pox and measles were two good allies of the Spaniards and British in the conquest of America. The indigenous population had no experience with these immune agents that facilitated the spread of two viruses causing the death of a significant proportion of native populations. Francisco Pizarro like the settlers in North America used the contaminated fomites (blankets), which gave the Indians getting the spread of smallpox in a very effective.

During the twentieth century, in 1937 Japan began a program of research with infectious agents in a laboratory called "Unit 731" which saw prisoners of war with inhaled Anthrax; after the Second World War it was estimated that about 3000 prisoners died in relation to these experiments. In 1940, there was an epidemic of plague in China and Manchuria, his initiation was related to a "rain of flea infected with Yersinia pestis dropped by Japanese planes flying over the affected area.

In 1943, United States of America and Japan joined Germany in the investigation of biological agents. One of his labs was Fort Detrick in Maryland, where he currently still works with Bacillus anthracis in order to test the effectiveness of the vaccine in animals. In 1969, following a presidential decree destroyed all infectious agents and toxins that could mean potential harm to the population, including Bacillus anthracis, botulinum toxin, Francisella tularensis, Coxiella burnetti, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, Brucella suis and toxin staphylococci B. In 1972, an agreement was signed between the major powers for not producing, researching, storing or infectious agents that could be used as biological weapons. Among the countries that signed the agreement were United States, the former Soviet Union and Iraq. Despite the agreement, the production of Anthrax by the Soviet Union became apparent after the accident at Sverdlovsk in 1979, where there was a massive release of spores of Bacillus anthracis from a military compound. Affected individuals develop a fever with acute respiratory distress with pulmonary Anthrax estimated to have died from this cause between 200 to 1 000 residents of this neighboring military base. In 1991, then in 1995, Iraq admitted to the United Nations continued to work with biological weapons like Anthrax and botulinum toxin, also trying to refine the method of distribution by incorporating them into missiles, bombs or aerosolized cylinders.

In 1977, smallpox was eradicated and the WHO recommended the cessation of vaccination worldwide in 1980, then only two retained the variola virus, the Center for Infectious Disease Control in Atlanta, United States and the Institute of Preparations viral Moscow, USSR

Despite the agreements reached at the global level, the production of biological weapons has been increasing and there has been great concern for its use in any war situation, especially now after the destruction of the twin towers of New York and the Pentagon in Washington DC in the United States September 11, 2001.

The first case of Anthrax in Florida confirmed that pulmonary arrest. Between October and November 2001 were 10 cases of pulmonary Anthrax spores inhaled product mailed letters or packages. The expected mortality for a case of inhalational anthrax is about 85 to 100%, however, between these cases, the survival was 60%, probably influenced by the early research of them, better diagnostic tests, antibiotics used in a stage premature disease and an aggressive intensive therapy in all.

From the medical point of view, any infectious agent, or toxic chemical could in theory be manipulated and used as a biological weapon, but probably the smallpox virus, spores of Bacillus anthracis, botulinum toxin and Yersinia pestis (plague ) are the infectious agents most likely to be chosen for purposes of bioterrorism. They belong to category A biological agents, or those who are high risk, are transmitted person to person, cause high mortality and impact to public health and panic in the population. Furthermore, the ability to share that when used as biological weapons can be aerosolized particles of a size as small as 1 to 5 microns, which allows to remain in the air longer when inhaled and reach the distal bronchioles and pulmonary alveoli without being filtered by the upper respiratory tract. The respiratory route, so it is most effective to achieve a bioterrorist. Aerosols can be produced by simple technology and dispensed from an airplane or a boat with the wind in favor of white. The best weather for this purpose are at night and early morning when the wind is more stable. Pollution of water and food, and the percutaneous route are the alternatives that have been used exposure to biological agents.

An infectious agent is selected to be used as a biological weapon if it meets the requirements of high infectivity (low infective doses), high contagiousness (high rate of secondary cases), high case fatality, which has no antimicrobial treatment is available or is inaccessible or high toxicity, and has no antidote or vaccine. Examples of infectious diseases are highly lethal inhalational Anthrax and botulinum poisoning. Botulism is a progressive muscle paralysis and symmetrical ending in respiratory failure in installments depending on the route of entry of the toxin. Typically, symptoms appear within 48 h when the toxin has been ingested, and several days later when it has been inhaled. The picture of muscle paralysis is irreversible without ventilatory support, which may be necessary for weeks or months while the nerve endings regenerate blocked by the toxin to presynaptic level. Botulinum toxin is the most deadly of all toxins, required quantities of the order of 0.001 microgram / kg to produce death in 50% of those who receive it.

Yersinia pestis infection and Coxiella burnetti debut both as pulmonary tables that can be confused or diagnosed as having community-acquired pneumonia or viral infections such as seasonal influenza complicated. Both tables are of high mortality if not recognized in time, which makes the situation pneumonia Yersinia pestis is transmitted person to person in an effective manner through respiratory secretions.

The smallpox virus used as a biological weapon is a serious problem for the world's population, it has a fatality rate of 30% or more between the subject, added to which there is no readily available vaccine or specific antiviral therapy. The spread of smallpox virus by aerosol makes it an excellent agent in biological weapon because a virus is stable in these conditions and requires a low infective dose, their effects on a fully susceptible population would undoubtedly be devastating for the world's population .

Unlike diseases caused by chemical agents that are obvious and immediate, diseases caused by biological agents used for bioterrorism are insidiously, the first cases will be seen, depending on the agent's incubation period, in hours, days or weeks posexposición . Emergency services and outpatient care will receive the first consultation and diagnosis is usually difficult because the early symptoms of these diseases are nonspecific and are more structured clinical disease are not diagnosed as normal. At this point it is very likely that new cases begin to consult or the transmission from person to person account of the expansion of the outbreak or epidemic. This time of early recognition of the early cases is vital to organize a monitoring system that includes the identification and dissemination of the problem, the diagnostic methods, therapeutic alternatives and prevention with vaccines or prophylactic therapy. This organization must engage health agencies (hospitals, emergency services units, epidemiology, diagnostic microbiology laboratories and toxicological health networks, medical research centers, societies of health professionals and others), especially the pharmaceutical companies that working with vaccines and drugs, defense and international agencies. Finally, they must be responsible for maintaining good communication between various levels and transmit information to the people real and concrete to help control the anxiety levels of those who have been exposed to any of these biological agents.

The steps that have been suggested to be followed to deal with a biological weapons attack is to strengthen the epidemiological surveillance of the disease-awaited update of laboratory diagnostic techniques at the local or central (quick reference center), a communications system among the participating agencies (health, defense, international), disseminate to health professionals the problem and potential solutions, develop educational materials for the population, ensure stock specific drugs and vaccines, to develop diagnostic techniques and molecular surveillance of strains and finally research into new drugs and vaccines.

Biological agent

2009-05-29T20:52:00.000-07:00

A biological agent is an infectious disease or toxin that can be used for biological warfare or for bioterrorism. There are over 1200 types of biological agents.
Biological agents include microorganisms such as viruses, the bacteria and fungi and some unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes, which have the ability to adversely affect the health of humans in various ways, ranging from allergic reactions to serious medical mondiones that can lead to the death.

These organisms are found in any natural environment, ie, can be found in water, soil, plants and animals. Because many biological agents are very fast and require very few resources to survive, they represent a potential danger to a wide range of occupations.
Examples of biological agents are:
The anthrax
The avian flu
The plague
The smallpox
The viral hemorrhagic fevers

Harassment biological microorganisms for the benefit of man

2009-05-27T20:43:00.000-07:00

As a science fiction film or a horror film, in nature there are different taxonomic groups of organisms that live biologically harassed by individuals of other species and throughout their lives are in a constant state of intimidation and biological threats. These relationships are not only among higher organisms, but also between diverse organisms and the most interesting is when links are formed that involve both biological organisms as superior to individuals including man.
Individuals in the wild have to face the fact that in seeking to satisfy their biological needs exist around them a great bio-diversity of species as they desperately try to achieve its vital functions in which the need not only by the food, but also a living space, make them natural enemies, triggering an intense battle in which the biological is the winner with the highest qualities of adaptation.
During the development of various biological in nature, establishing links that make up a great biological diversity of food chains. These associations determine various biological population dynamics with a tendency towards a harmony between individuals.
It is known that within the great diversity of species, the bacteria are important biological entities for the development of other individuals. Some bacteria favor the development of organisms from other species act as promoters population. In contrast, other bacteria produce metabolites lethal to individuals from other populations such as insects or nematodes. Thereof, there are fungi that produce substances that limit the development of other fungi or bacteria, but these fungi are used to nourish or promote the development of insects or mites.
Some agencies are involved with higher organisms, including animals or consumption of the same man. For example, there is a group of protozoa and bacteria that inhabit the digestive tract of many animals, mainly ruminants, acting as responsible for unfolding or degradation of forage to produce enzymes cellulolitic that animals are not normally capable of producing.
This is just one example where it provides an intimate relationship of mutual benefit between these microorganisms and ruminants. On the other hand, a group of bacteria is essential to incorporate nutrients into the root of the soil, acting as promoters of plant development. Some plants are toxic or other substances with unpleasant odors and flavors to help them protect themselves from various agricultural pests.
Also, some plants produce chemicals that help them protect themselves from many diseases and have been used for the benefit of man to cure a wide variety of ailments through traditional medicine. Communities of microorganisms involved in fermentative processes have been used traditionally by man to the development of a wide variety of foods and beverages, including beer and cheese, besides being used for the production of materials commonly used in pharmaceutical industry .
Some agencies are good for men as they act as natural enemies of pests in animals or humans. For example, there is a group of fungi classified as "entomopathogenic" mycelium invade and destroy a group of ectoparasites that affect both animals to humans. Similarly, there is a group of microscopic fungi that capture and kill nematodes that normally pollute the grass and are ingested by animals provided a parasite that can also kill young animals.
Some bacteria produce toxins lethal to a wide range of agricultural pests including insects and public health importance. They are regarded as beneficial so that naturally help to control various parasitic diseases of plants and animals and even could have a significant potential impact on public health.
Science and technology are responsible for exploring this wonderful world that is hidden in the soil and is full of extraordinary biological richness that may benefit mankind, not just food, but the cure of a variety of diseases that so far only can be controlled with medication chemical nature of the big disadvantages not only in costs, but the environmental implications and the deterioration of public health worldwide.

Ecological Footprint

2009-05-26T20:41:00.000-07:00

The calculation of the ecological footprint is complex and in some cases impossible, which is their main limitation as a marker in any case, there are various estimation methods to the analysis of the resources that a person consumes and waste it produces . Basically, their results are based on observation of the following:
The number of hectares used to develop, build infrastructure and facilities.
Hectares needed to provide the necessary plant food.
Grazing area required to feed livestock.
Marine area needed to produce fish.
Hectares of forest needed to take the CO2 that causes our energy consumption. In this sense not only affect the degree of energy efficiency achieved but also the sources used for obtaining a greater use of renewable energy, reduced environmental footprint.

From a global point of view, it has been estimated at 1.8 biocapacity of the planet per capita, that is, if we were to divide the land productive land in equal parts to each of over six billion people on the planet, they would be 1.8 acres to meet all your needs for a year. With data from 2005, the average consumption per capita per year is 2.7 hectares, which, globally, we are consuming resources and generating more waste of the planet that can generate and support.

[Edit]
Application and methodologies

Ecological footprint analysis has been applied to several levels, from the global scale, up to the home. In this study, the ecological footprint of Guernsey component was calculated and then used as a tool for exploring the making decisions. This has been done considering the ecological footprint of passenger travel, having data on time series and scenario development.

The component-based approach, first documented by Cambers and Simmons (1998) and then by Simmons et al. (2000) is a different approach to the ecological footprint. Instead of considering the consumption of raw materials, it considers the effect of transport, energy, water and waste. This was a more simplified and higher education with a regional significance. This is mainly because it is built around activities that people can think and where they are involved (such as waste production and consumption of electricity). Simmons and Chambers (1998) calculated the first set of algorithms capable of turning "Use of Resources" to "Land Equivalent Area", entitled "Methodology Eco-Index" (Chambers et al., 2000). The Stockholm Environment Institute adopted this pioneering approach. In the model base component, the value of the ecological footprint for certain activities are precalculate using data from the study region (Simmons et al., 2000). With the approach Wackernagel's, known as the Ecological Footprint Composite, six main types of productive land area is used: fossil energy land, arable land, pasture, forest, land, sea and space construible. The approach considers human demands compound on each of these types of land, for a given population, wherever the land might be.

Classification (2003 and 2005) according to Global Footprint Network
Classification of countries with the largest ecological footprint per person has global ¹ (2003 and 2005
According to this same report, by the year 2005 estimated the number of global hectares (ha bioproductive) per person to 2.1. However, for all the world, consumption is at 2.7. Therefore, at least for this year (and the trend is growing because in 2003 the global ecological footprint was estimated at 2.23), we were over-consuming in the capacity of the planet we are destroying resources at a rate higher than their rate of natural regeneration.

Although the ecological footprint aspires to be mainly a quantitative indicator and precise, its main results have come as a conceptual framework for comparing disparate societies and assess their impact on the global environment. Basically agrarian life in a well organized and extensive monocultures, it is estimated that between 1 and 2 have approximately the necessary land for the needs of a family of self. Moreover, industrial development, physically based on the availability of fossil fuels, that the needs of an average French citizen has concluded that two other planets would be needed as this to the 6,000 million human beings current could all live that way. These early findings are necessary to distinguish two fundamental elements: i) in the industrial world today impacts occur at the planetary level and ii) the ecological footprint has little to do with the physical space occupied by a human group. In this way the ecological footprint of most developed countries beyond its own surface, and extracting resources and waste dumped in places far removed from the planet.

The educational value of the concept of ecological footprint is that it makes clear that two related realities beyond the reach of intuition. First, the typical lifestyle of the richest countries on the planet can not be extended to all its inhabitants. Second, a sustainable economy requires that a wealthy minority reduce their consumption and also their standard of living, to the extent not offset by an equivalent increase in the efficiency of production processes.

Impact on environment of Biofuel

2009-05-24T20:51:00.000-07:00

The use of biofuels have environmental impacts positive and negative. The negative impacts are that, despite being a renewable energy is not considered by many experts as a non-polluting energy, and thus not a green energy. One reason is that although in the early production of biofuels only used the remains of other agricultural activities, with its promotion and widespread in developed countries, many developing countries, especially Southeast Asia, are destroying their natural including jungles and forests to create plantations for biofuels. The consequence of this is just the opposite of what you want to achieve with biofuels: the forests more clean air than do crops to be put in place.

Some sources claim that the net balance of carbon dioxide by the use of biofuels is nil because the plant through photosynthesis, capture during their growth CO 2 is emitted during combustion of biofuel. However, many operations performed for the production of biofuels, such as the use of farm machinery, fertilizer, or transport products and raw materials currently used fossil fuels and, consequently, the net balance of carbon dioxide is good .

Other causes of environmental impacts are due to the use of fertilizer and water needed for crops, transportation of biomass, fuel processing and distribution of biofuels to the consumer. Various types of fertilizers tend to degrade the acidified soil. Water consumption for cultivation involves reducing the volume of stocks and flows of rivers of fresh water.

Some biofuel production processes are more efficient than others in terms of resource consumption and environmental pollution. For example, the cultivation of sugar cane requires the use of less fertilizer to grow corn, so the life cycle of bioethanol from sugar cane is a further reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases with respect to cycle life of fossil fuels more effectively than the cycle of bioethanol derived from corn. However, applying the techniques and strategies of agricultural processing, biofuels can provide emissions savings of at least 50% compared to fossil fuels such as diesel or gasoline.The use of biofuels from plants produce less harmful emissions of sulfur per unit of energy use of products derived from petroleum. Due to the use of nitrogen fertilizers, under certain conditions the use of biofuels from plants can produce more emissions of nitrogen oxides that the use of petroleum products.

A real solution is not yet available but the use of agro-industrial residues rich in hemicellulose. This does not provide new areas of cultivation or use of food for biofuel production. An example of this is utilzación of coseta beet, wheat straw coronta corn or tree bark. Hydrolysis of these compounds is more complex than the use of starch for obtaining free fermentable sugars, therefore, requires a greater amount of energy to process the initial compound before fermentation, however, the cost of production is considering that almost nothing is waste. The only efficient and clean technology is the use of enzymes hemicelulolíticas. There are three key points that must be solved before implementing or enhancing this technology. 1) We must find a more stable and efficient enzymes. 2) less destructive methods of immobilization of enzymes for industrial use. 3) microorganisms capable of efficiently fermenting monosaccharides derived from hemicellulose (xylose and arabinose) is included.

Biofuel

2009-05-23T20:41:00.000-07:00

Organisms or their metabolic wastes such as manure from the cow.
The fuels of biological origin can replace part of the consumption in fossil fuels, such as the oil or coal. Biofuels are most commonly used and developed the bioethanol and biodiesel.
The bioethanol, also called ethanol from biomass is produced from corn, sorghum, sugar cane, beet and some cereals such as wheat or barley. In 2006, United States was the largest producer of bioethanol (36% of world production), Brazil accounts for 33.3%, China 7.5%, the India 3.7% France 1.9% and Germany 1.5%. The total output of 2006 reached 55 billion liters.
The biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, which may already be used or unused. In the latter case is used raps, canola, soybean and jatropha, which are cultivated for this purpose. The largest producer of biodiesel in the world is Germany, which accounts for 63% of production. Remains France with 17%, United States with 10%, Italy with 7% and Austria with 3%.

Other alternatives such as Biopropanol and Biobutanol are less popular, but no less problematic research in these areas due to the high price of fossil fuels and their eventual conclusion.

Heat-tolerant Coral Reefs Discovered: May Survive Global Warming

2009-05-22T20:35:00.000-07:00

ScienceDaily (May 22, 2009) — Experts say that more than half of the world's coral reefs could disappear in the next 50 years, in large part because of higher ocean temperatures caused by climate change. But now Stanford University scientists have found evidence that some coral reefs are adapting and may actually survive global warming
"Corals are certainly threatened by environmental change, but this research has really sparked the notion that corals may be tougher than we thought," said Stephen Palumbi, a professor of biology and a senior fellow at Stanford's Woods Institute for the Environment.

Palumbi and his Stanford colleagues began studying the resiliency of coral reefs in the Pacific Ocean in 2006 with the support of a Woods Institute Environmental Venture Project grant. The project has expanded and is now being funded by Conservation International and the Bio-X program at Stanford.

"The most exciting thing was discovering live, healthy corals on reefs already as hot as the ocean is likely to get 100 years from now," said Palumbi, director of Stanford's Hopkins Marine Station. "How do they do that?"

Corals in peril

Coral reefs form the basis for thriving, healthy ecosystems throughout the tropics. They provide homes and nourishment for thousands of species, including massive schools of fish, which in turn feed millions of people across the globe.

Corals rely on partnerships with tiny, single-celled algae called zooxanthellae. The corals provide the algae a home, and, in turn, the algae provide nourishment, forming a symbiotic relationship. But when rising temperatures stress the algae, they stop producing food, and the corals spit them out. Without their algae symbionts, the reefs die and turn stark white, an event referred to as "coral bleaching."

During particularly warm years, bleaching has accounted for the deaths of large numbers of corals. In the Caribbean in 2005, a heat surge caused more than 50 percent of corals to bleach, and many still have not recovered, according to the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, an international collaboration of government officials, policymakers and marine scientists, including Palumbi.
Havens of healthy reefs

In recent years, scientists discovered that some corals resist bleaching by hosting types of algae that can handle the heat, while others swap out the heat-stressed algae for tougher, heat-resistant strains. Palumbi's team set out to investigate how widely dispersed these heat-tolerant coral reefs are across the globe and to learn more about the biological processes that allow them to adapt to higher temperatures.

In 2006, Palumbi and graduate student Tom Oliver, now a postdoctoral researcher at Stanford, traveled to Ofu Island in American Samoa. Ofu, a tropical coral reef marine reserve, has remained healthy despite gradually warming waters.

The island offered the perfect laboratory setting, Oliver said, with numerous corals hosting the most common heat-sensitive and heat-resistant algae symbionts. Ofu also has pools of varying temperatures that allowed the research team to test under what conditions the symbionts formed associations with corals.

In cooler lagoons, Oliver found only a handful of corals that host heat-resistant algae exclusively. But in hotter pools, he observed a direct increase in the proportion of heat-resistant symbionts, suggesting that some corals had swapped out the heat-sensitive algae for more robust types. These results, combined with regional data from other sites in the tropical Pacific, were published in the journal Marine Ecology Progress Series in March 2009.

Global pattern

To see if this pattern exists on a global scale, the researchers turned to Kevin Arrigo, an associate professor of environmental Earth system science at Stanford and an expert on remote satellite sensing of marine microalgae. Arrigo gathered worldwide oceanographic data on a variety of environmental variables, including ocean acidity, the frequency of weather events and sea-surface temperature.

Oliver then compiled dozens of coral reef studies from across the tropics and compared them to Arrigo's environmental data. The results revealed the same pattern: In regions where annual maximum ocean temperatures were above 84 to 88 degrees Fahrenheit (29 to 31 degrees Celsius), corals were avoiding bleaching by hosting higher proportions of the heat-resistant symbionts.

Most corals bleach when temperatures rise 1.8 F (1 C) above the long-term normal highs. But heat-tolerant symbionts might allow a reef to handle temperatures up to 2.6 F (1.5 C) beyond the bleaching threshold. That might be enough to help get them through the end of the century, Oliver said, depending on the severity of global warming.

A 2007 report by the United Nations International Panel on Climate Change concluded that the average surface temperature of the Earth is likely to increase 3.6 to 8.1 F (2 to 4.5 C) by 2100. In this scenario, the symbiont switch alone may not be enough to help corals survive through the end of the century. But with the help of other adaptive mechanisms, including natural selection for heat-tolerant corals, there is still hope, Oliver said.

"These findings show that, given enough time, many corals can match hotter environments by hosting heat-resistant symbionts," he explained. "While hopeful, the work also suggests that modern environments are changing so rapidly that corals may not be able to keep up. It comes down to a calculation of the rates of environmental change versus the rates of adaptation."

Heat-resistant corals also turn out to be more tolerant of increases in ocean acidity, which occurs when the ocean absorbs excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere—another potential threat to coral reefs. This finding suggests that corals worldwide are adapting to increases in acidity as well as heat, Oliver said, and that across the tropics, corals with the ability to switch symbionts will do so to survive.

Future protection

The problem of coral bleaching comes down to a collapse of the algae at the cellular level, Oliver explained. But the molecular biology of corals and their zooxanthellae under stress is shockingly understudied, he added.

To examine the corals and their symbionts at the molecular level, the researchers are collaborating with John Pringle, a professor of genetics at Stanford. Pringle and his lab have set up tanks where anemones, corals and their algae are exposed to a variety of treatments, including changes in temperature, acidity and light. That research is ongoing.

"What I hope is that we will learn some really deep and interesting things about the cellular and genetic mechanisms that allow this symbiosis to function, and about the mechanisms that come into play when the symbiosis is breaking down under stress," Pringle said. "The longer-range hope is that having that understanding will contribute to efforts in coral conservation."

The ultimate goal is to find protein biomarkers that indicate signs of heat stress and potential heat resistance, Oliver explained. Then coral reef managers could go to a reef, take small coral samples and test for the presence of the biomarkers to see how resilient the reef will be to higher temperatures.

"With this tool, managers could identify existing populations that may be more resistant to climate change and potentially prioritize their protection from everything else that kills coral reefs, like fishing and [agricultural] runoff," Oliver said.

"Although we are doing things to the planet we have never done before, it's hard to imagine that these corals, which have existed for a quarter of a billion years, only have 50 years left," Palumbi said. "And part of our job might be to figure out where the tougher ones live and protect those places."

Biotechnology: Hamburg University of Technology

2009-05-20T20:55:00.000-07:00

The profile of engineering higher education at TUHH focuses on research and application, including practical training in industry. It is characterised by features such as humanism, the Humboldt Principle of unity of research and teaching and a solid mathematical and scientific foundation. The base of knowledge covers a wide range, and priority is given to knowledge of methodology as opposed to the mere repetition of knowledge. This allows for quick adaption to new fields of technology and new branches of employment. The solid and comprehensive education leads to the qualification and personality for a promising professional or academic career.

The challenges of modern biotechnology can only be met by a close collaboration of researchers from different disciplines. By applying modern technology, biological systems can be exploited for the production of high-value products that are needed for medical, pharmaceutical, food and chemical industries. The Master's programme in Biotechnology at the TUHH is a multi-disciplinary programme involving life sciences and engineering. The programme focuses on specific areas of microbiology, molecular biology, bioprocess engineering and reaction engineering.
The standard duration of the course is two years. In the first year students take part in lectures, exercises and laboratory work. During the lecture-free period after the second semester an internship takes place, followed by a project and a subject-specific seminar or a process design course in the third semester. The course is completed with a six-month Master's thesis in the fourth semester.

The technological challenges of modern society and the requirements of the globalised labour market call for an excellent engineering education as well as for sound additional qualifications in the fields of business and management, soft skills, and humanities. Therefore, the international Master's degree courses at TUHH include a minimum number of non-technical compulsory elective courses.

Why biodiversity is important

2009-05-19T20:59:00.000-07:00

Having a wide diversity of life on Earth is valuable for a variety of reasons. These can be grouped into the three basic categories listed below. Scroll down for more details on each of these values.

VALUES IN DETAIL
Ecological Values

The following natural cycles make Earth hospitable by moderating temperatures and climate, and by providing us with food, clean water and breathable air.

Energy cycle: Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants convert sunlight, water, nutrients, and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (which also releases oxygen into the atmosphere). Plants and photosynthetic bacteria transform energy from the sun into stored chemical energy, which is the foundation for virtually all food webs.

Water cycle: The refers to the circulation, transformation, and replenishment of fresh water from all of Earth’s ecosystems. Forests, for example, moderate water flows by catching, holding and recycling rainwater. Plants release absorbed rainwater into the air through the loss of water through their leaves, called transpiration. In addition, wetlands and estuaries purify water and control flooding. Cattails, for example, catch and filter rainfalls and stream flows, remove toxins and gradually release water into creeks and rivers.

Carbon and oxygen cycles: Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is generated by animal respiration, plant decay and the burning of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed into the oceans through photosynthesis by tiny sea-dwelling organisms called phytoplankton. Trees and plants store CO2 as carbohydrates or complex sugars, and release oxygen back into the atmosphere, which provides us with a breathable atmosphere.

Nitrogen cycle: Nitrogen is needed by all organisms in order to live, and it makes up a large component of Earth’s atmosphere. In its natural atmospheric form, nitrogen isn’t directly accessible to most organisms, so it needs to be converted, primarily by bacteria which live on the roots of certain plants such as clover, alfalfa, peas and beans. These bacteria absorb nitrogen from the air and “fix” it into compounds like nitrate and ammonia -- which helps plants grow. Creatures feeding on these plants release nitrogen in their waste products, which decompose and are then recycled into the atmosphere in their original form.

Ecosystems provide numerous additional services to humans, animals and plants that we take for granted. For example, bacteria and soil organisms decompose waste products and create fertile soils in which crops can be grown. Pollinators such as bees ensure our food crops reproduce, while other animals such as bats, ladybugs and dragonflies control crop pests.

The daily activities of a diverse range of creatures helps keep ecosystems functioning. In turn, these ecosystems support life. Healthy ecosystems are more stable and more adaptable to any change, such as extreme events like drought or floods which can alter entire ecosystems.

Economic Values

Nature provides the raw materials we need for survival, and forms the basis for the global economy. The world food supply today is derived from 30 crops which supply about 90 per cent of calories to the human diet. And just 14 animal species make up 90 per cent of the livestock we raise. Since we depend so few plant and animal species to supply us with food, we are vulnerable to environmental changes and crop diseases.

Scientists have identified and named about 270,000 species of plants. Some experts estimate the total number of plants could be as high as 320,000 worldwide. Tropical rain forests support some of Earth’s highest levels of biodiversity. At least 1,650 known tropical forest plants have the potential to be grown as vegetable crops, which could reduce our reliance on the few crops grown today

Nature is also the source for many medicines such as aspirin, heart stimulants, antibiotics, anti-malarial and cancer fighting compounds. For example, a drug called Taxol, derived from the Pacific yew tree, has shown promise in the treatment of ovarian and breast cancers in trials conducted by the U.S.-based National Cancer Institute.

About a quarter of all prescription drugs are taken directly from plants or are chemically modified versions of plant substances. More than half are modelled on natural compounds. About 121 prescription drugs are derived from higher plants. Yet less than 1 per cent of rainforest plants have been tested for their medicinal properties. It has been estimated that of the world’s 250,000 known plant species, only 5,000 have been tested for their medicinal potential. In the US, more than $6 billion (US) is spent annually on medicines derived from tropical plants.

Everything we use in our daily lives was originally derived from the natural world. In 1997, a team of ecologists and economists estimated the monetary value of nature’s services to society to be at least $33 trillion (US) each year, nearly twice the $18 trillion combined gross national product (GNP) of all the world’s 194 countries that year.

Climate regulation, water purification, soil regeneration, nutrient cycling, waste recirculation, crop pollination and production of timber, fodder, and biomass are provided by our living environment for free. This dollar estimate is purely a thought experiment since nature’s services can’t be replaced, but it demonstrates why maintaining biodiversity is essential for sustaining the global economy.

Cultural Values of Biodiversity

From aboriginal creation myths and other ancient religions to the work of generations of artists, poets, musicians and storytellers, nature has been the foundation of human cultural identities, spirtual practices and creative expression throughout the ages.

The planet’s cultural diversity is rooted in its vast biodiversity. According to Vandana Shiva, a scientist and agricultural activist in India who has been instrumental in advocating the importance of indigenous plant diversity, "The co-evolution of culture, life forms, and habitats has conserved the biological diversity of this planet. Cultural diversity and biological diversity go hand in hand in hand."

Canadians only need to look at their fragile coastal ecosystems to understand the peril that human communities face when biological diversity is at risk. In Newfoundland, the collapse of the Atlantic cod stocks ended a unique way of life – a cherished part of the Canadian mosaic – for thousands of people whose seafaring culture had gone back generations. Climate change now threatens delicate boreal and tundra ecosystems in the Arctic, and the wildlife on which the Inuit depend for food, income and ceremonial purposes.

In coastal British Columbia – a region rich in biological diversity—decades of mismanagement of the province’s forests and fisheries has meant that in the last five years more people have left BC’s rural coastal communities than at any time in their modern history. This is a population loss unprecedented outside wartime conscription and the diseases which devastated many aboriginal communities in the late 1800s. Destructive logging and mismanaged fisheries have caused the decline and extinction of numerous salmon runs and the subsequent loss of their gene pools. The decline of salmon, in turn, has altered the way of life of First Nation and other communities on the BC Coast.

Just as genetic diversity allows a single species to survive in the face of changing conditions, so diversity of traditional knowledge and cultures has been at the root of the development of Canada. Canadians – from the aboriginal people to immigrants from every country of the globe – have adapted to environments as diverse as the Arctic tundra, coastal rainforests, prairie grasslands, the Canadian shield and modern megacities. Our diverse indigenous, ethic, linguistic and regional cultures, combined with the biological wealth of Canada, lay at the root of our identity as a people and a country.

The loss of a Newfoundland out-port, an Inuit village, a prairie town should be seen as a weakening of our national fabric. More often than not, the decline of human communities is directly related to the health of ecosystems on which these communities depend. In this way, cultural diversity is an extension of the biological diversity we see in our planet’s ecosystems.

Biodiversity Explanation

2009-05-19T20:56:00.000-07:00

Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems. The biodiversity found on Earth today consists of many millions of distinct biological species, which is the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.[1][2]
Biodiversity is a portmanteau word, from biology and diversity, originating from and used interchangeably with "biological diversity." This term was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in a lay book[3] advocating nature conservation. It was not widely adopted for more than a decade, when in the 1980s it and "biodiversity" came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Use of the term by Thomas Lovejoy in the Forward to the book[4] credited with launching the field of conservation biology introduced the term along with "conservation biology" to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity" was used in conservation science circles, including by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and its head Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy, and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of "biological diversity" to embrace the object of biological conservation.

Its contracted form biodiversity may have been coined by W.G. Rosen in 1985 while planning the National Forum on Biological Diversity organized by the National Research Council (NRC) which was to be held in 1986, and first appeared in a publication in 1988 when entomologist E. O. Wilson used it as the title of the proceedings[5] of that forum.[6]

Since this period both terms and the concept have achieved widespread use among biologists, environmentalists, political leaders, and concerned citizens worldwide. It is generally used to equate to a concern for the natural environment and nature conservation. This use has coincided with the expansion of concern over extinction observed in the last decades of the 20th century.

A similar concept in use in the United States, besides natural diversity, is the term "natural heritage." It pre-dates both terms though it is a less scientific term and more easily comprehended in some ways by the wider audience interested in conservation. "Natural Heritage" was used when Jimmy Carter set up the Georgia Heritage Trust while he was governor of Georgia; Carter's trust dealt with both natural and cultural heritage. It would appear that Carter picked the term up from Lyndon Johnson, who used it in a 1966 Message to Congress. "Natural Heritage" was picked up by the Science Division of the US Nature Conservancy when, under Jenkins, it launched in 1974 the network of State Natural Heritage Programs. When this network was extended outside the USA, the term "Conservation Data Center" was suggested by Guillermo Mann and came to be preferred.

inging His Praises: Darwin in Song and Musical Production” Takes the Stage at the MBL

2009-05-17T21:48:00.000-07:00

MBL, WOODS HOLE, MA—In celebration of the 200th anniversary of Charles Darwin's birth and the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species, V. Betty Smocovitis of the University of Florida will present an entertaining multimedia lecture, “Singing His Praises: Darwin in Song and Musical Production,” at 7:30 p.m. Friday, May 22, 2009, in Lillie Auditorium, Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL), MBL Street, Woods Hole. The event, which is sponsored by the MBLWHOI Library, is free and open to the public.

Smocovitis will talk about Darwin, his theory, and its expression in popular culture, from 19th-century musicals to the MTV videos of today. Through audio and video recordings, including historic grammophone and tinfoil records, she will explore a number of issues in the history of evolution pertaining to controversies surrounding Darwin and his theory, all in a lighthearted and engaging manner.